Resorted; add some missing Morohashi's Daikanwa characters; add

[chise/xemacs-chise.git-] / info / internals.info-3

This is ../info/internals.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.0 from
internals/internals.texi.

INFO-DIR-SECTION XEmacs Editor
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Internals: (internals).       XEmacs Internals Manual.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   Copyright (C) 1992 - 1996 Ben Wing.  Copyright (C) 1996, 1997 Sun
Microsystems.  Copyright (C) 1994 - 1998 Free Software Foundation.
Copyright (C) 1994, 1995 Board of Trustees, University of Illinois.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a
translation approved by the Foundation.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
Foundation instead of in the original English.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Conversion to and from External Data,  Next: General Guidelines for Writing Mule-Aware Code,  Prev: Working With Character and Byte Positions,  Up: Coding for Mule

Conversion to and from External Data
------------------------------------

   When an external function, such as a C library function, returns a
`char' pointer, you should almost never treat it as `Bufbyte'.  This is
because these returned strings may contain 8bit characters which can be
misinterpreted by XEmacs, and cause a crash.  Likewise, when exporting
a piece of internal text to the outside world, you should always
convert it to an appropriate external encoding, lest the internal stuff
(such as the infamous \201 characters) leak out.

   The interface to conversion between the internal and external
representations of text are the numerous conversion macros defined in
`buffer.h'.  There used to be a fixed set of external formats supported
by these macros, but now any coding system can be used with these
macros.  The coding system alias mechanism is used to create the
following logical coding systems, which replace the fixed external
formats.  The (dontusethis-set-symbol-value-handler) mechanism was
enhanced to make this possible (more work on that is needed - like
remove the `dontusethis-' prefix).

`Qbinary'
     This is the simplest format and is what we use in the absence of a
     more appropriate format.  This converts according to the `binary'
     coding system:

       a. On input, bytes 0-255 are converted into (implicitly Latin-1)
          characters 0-255.  A non-Mule xemacs doesn't really know about
          different character sets and the fonts to display them, so
          the bytes can be treated as text in different 1-byte
          encodings by simply setting the appropriate fonts.  So in a
          sense, non-Mule xemacs is a multi-lingual editor if, for
          example, different fonts are used to display text in
          different buffers, faces, or windows.  The specifier
          mechanism gives the user complete control over this kind of
          behavior.

       b. On output, characters 0-255 are converted into bytes 0-255
          and other characters are converted into `~'.

`Qfile_name'
     Format used for filenames.  This is user-definable via either the
     `file-name-coding-system' or `pathname-coding-system' (now
     obsolete) variables.

`Qnative'
     Format used for the external Unix environment--`argv[]', stuff
     from `getenv()', stuff from the `/etc/passwd' file, etc.
     Currently this is the same as Qfile_name.  The two should be
     distinguished for clarity and possible future separation.

`Qctext'
     Compound-text format.  This is the standard X11 format used for
     data stored in properties, selections, and the like.  This is an
     8-bit no-lock-shift ISO2022 coding system.  This is a real coding
     system, unlike Qfile_name, which is user-definable.

   There are two fundamental macros to convert between external and
internal format.

   `TO_INTERNAL_FORMAT' converts external data to internal format, and
`TO_EXTERNAL_FORMAT' converts the other way around.  The arguments each
of these receives are a source type, a source, a sink type, a sink, and
a coding system (or a symbol naming a coding system).

   A typical call looks like
     TO_EXTERNAL_FORMAT (LISP_STRING, str, C_STRING_MALLOC, ptr, Qfile_name);

   which means that the contents of the lisp string `str' are written
to a malloc'ed memory area which will be pointed to by `ptr', after the
function returns.  The conversion will be done using the `file-name'
coding system, which will be controlled by the user indirectly by
setting or binding the variable `file-name-coding-system'.

   Some sources and sinks require two C variables to specify.  We use
some preprocessor magic to allow different source and sink types, and
even different numbers of arguments to specify different types of
sources and sinks.

   So we can have a call that looks like
     TO_INTERNAL_FORMAT (DATA, (ptr, len),
                         MALLOC, (ptr, len),
                         coding_system);

   The parenthesized argument pairs are required to make the
preprocessor magic work.

   Here are the different source and sink types:

``DATA, (ptr, len),''
     input data is a fixed buffer of size LEN at address PTR

``ALLOCA, (ptr, len),''
     output data is placed in an alloca()ed buffer of size LEN pointed
     to by PTR

``MALLOC, (ptr, len),''
     output data is in a malloc()ed buffer of size LEN pointed to by PTR

``C_STRING_ALLOCA, ptr,''
     equivalent to `ALLOCA (ptr, len_ignored)' on output.

``C_STRING_MALLOC, ptr,''
     equivalent to `MALLOC (ptr, len_ignored)' on output

``C_STRING, ptr,''
     equivalent to `DATA, (ptr, strlen (ptr) + 1)' on input

``LISP_STRING, string,''
     input or output is a Lisp_Object of type string

``LISP_BUFFER, buffer,''
     output is written to `(point)' in lisp buffer BUFFER

``LISP_LSTREAM, lstream,''
     input or output is a Lisp_Object of type lstream

``LISP_OPAQUE, object,''
     input or output is a Lisp_Object of type opaque

   Often, the data is being converted to a '\0'-byte-terminated string,
which is the format required by many external system C APIs.  For these
purposes, a source type of `C_STRING' or a sink type of
`C_STRING_ALLOCA' or `C_STRING_MALLOC' is appropriate.  Otherwise, we
should try to keep XEmacs '\0'-byte-clean, which means using (ptr, len)
pairs.

   The sinks to be specified must be lvalues, unless they are the lisp
object types `LISP_LSTREAM' or `LISP_BUFFER'.

   For the sink types `ALLOCA' and `C_STRING_ALLOCA', the resulting
text is stored in a stack-allocated buffer, which is automatically
freed on returning from the function.  However, the sink types `MALLOC'
and `C_STRING_MALLOC' return `xmalloc()'ed memory.  The caller is
responsible for freeing this memory using `xfree()'.

   Note that it doesn't make sense for `LISP_STRING' to be a source for
`TO_INTERNAL_FORMAT' or a sink for `TO_EXTERNAL_FORMAT'.  You'll get an
assertion failure if you try.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: General Guidelines for Writing Mule-Aware Code,  Next: An Example of Mule-Aware Code,  Prev: Conversion to and from External Data,  Up: Coding for Mule

General Guidelines for Writing Mule-Aware Code
----------------------------------------------

   This section contains some general guidance on how to write
Mule-aware code, as well as some pitfalls you should avoid.

_Never use `char' and `char *'._
     In XEmacs, the use of `char' and `char *' is almost always a
     mistake.  If you want to manipulate an Emacs character from "C",
     use `Emchar'.  If you want to examine a specific octet in the
     internal format, use `Bufbyte'.  If you want a Lisp-visible
     character, use a `Lisp_Object' and `make_char'.  If you want a
     pointer to move through the internal text, use `Bufbyte *'.  Also
     note that you almost certainly do not need `Emchar *'.

_Be careful not to confuse `Charcount', `Bytecount', and `Bufpos'._
     The whole point of using different types is to avoid confusion
     about the use of certain variables.  Lest this effect be
     nullified, you need to be careful about using the right types.

_Always convert external data_
     It is extremely important to always convert external data, because
     XEmacs can crash if unexpected 8bit sequences are copied to its
     internal buffers literally.

     This means that when a system function, such as `readdir', returns
     a string, you may need to convert it using one of the conversion
     macros described in the previous chapter, before passing it
     further to Lisp.

     Actually, most of the basic system functions that accept
     '\0'-terminated string arguments, like `stat()' and `open()', have
     been *encapsulated* so that they are they `always' do internal to
     external conversion themselves.  This means you must pass
     internally encoded data, typically the `XSTRING_DATA' of a
     Lisp_String to these functions.  This is actually a design bug,
     since it unexpectedly changes the semantics of the system
     functions.  A better design would be to provide separate versions
     of these system functions that accepted Lisp_Objects which were
     lisp strings in place of their current `char *' arguments.

          int stat_lisp (Lisp_Object path, struct stat *buf); /* Implement me */

     Also note that many internal functions, such as `make_string',
     accept Bufbytes, which removes the need for them to convert the
     data they receive.  This increases efficiency because that way
     external data needs to be decoded only once, when it is read.
     After that, it is passed around in internal format.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: An Example of Mule-Aware Code,  Prev: General Guidelines for Writing Mule-Aware Code,  Up: Coding for Mule

An Example of Mule-Aware Code
-----------------------------

   As an example of Mule-aware code, we will analyze the `string'
function, which conses up a Lisp string from the character arguments it
receives.  Here is the definition, pasted from `alloc.c':

     DEFUN ("string", Fstring, 0, MANY, 0, /*
     Concatenate all the argument characters and make the result a string.
     */
            (int nargs, Lisp_Object *args))
     {
       Bufbyte *storage = alloca_array (Bufbyte, nargs * MAX_EMCHAR_LEN);
       Bufbyte *p = storage;
     
       for (; nargs; nargs--, args++)
         {
           Lisp_Object lisp_char = *args;
           CHECK_CHAR_COERCE_INT (lisp_char);
           p += set_charptr_emchar (p, XCHAR (lisp_char));
         }
       return make_string (storage, p - storage);
     }

   Now we can analyze the source line by line.

   Obviously, string will be as long as there are arguments to the
function.  This is why we allocate `MAX_EMCHAR_LEN' * NARGS bytes on
the stack, i.e. the worst-case number of bytes for NARGS `Emchar's to
fit in the string.

   Then, the loop checks that each element is a character, converting
integers in the process.  Like many other functions in XEmacs, this
function silently accepts integers where characters are expected, for
historical and compatibility reasons.  Unless you know what you are
doing, `CHECK_CHAR' will also suffice.  `XCHAR (lisp_char)' extracts
the `Emchar' from the `Lisp_Object', and `set_charptr_emchar' stores it
to storage, increasing `p' in the process.

   Other instructive examples of correct coding under Mule can be found
all over the XEmacs code.  For starters, I recommend
`Fnormalize_menu_item_name' in `menubar.c'.  After you have understood
this section of the manual and studied the examples, you can proceed
writing new Mule-aware code.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Techniques for XEmacs Developers,  Prev: Coding for Mule,  Up: Rules When Writing New C Code

Techniques for XEmacs Developers
================================

   To make a purified XEmacs, do: `make puremacs'.  To make a
quantified XEmacs, do: `make quantmacs'.

   You simply can't dump Quantified and Purified images (unless using
the portable dumper).  Purify gets confused when xemacs frees memory in
one process that was allocated in a _different_ process on a different
machine!.  Run it like so:
     temacs -batch -l loadup.el run-temacs XEMACS-ARGS...

   Before you go through the trouble, are you compiling with all
debugging and error-checking off?  If not, try that first.  Be warned
that while Quantify is directly responsible for quite a few
optimizations which have been made to XEmacs, doing a run which
generates results which can be acted upon is not necessarily a trivial
task.

   Also, if you're still willing to do some runs make sure you configure
with the `--quantify' flag.  That will keep Quantify from starting to
record data until after the loadup is completed and will shut off
recording right before it shuts down (which generates enough bogus data
to throw most results off).  It also enables three additional elisp
commands: `quantify-start-recording-data',
`quantify-stop-recording-data' and `quantify-clear-data'.

   If you want to make XEmacs faster, target your favorite slow
benchmark, run a profiler like Quantify, `gprof', or `tcov', and figure
out where the cycles are going.  Specific projects:

   * Make the garbage collector faster.  Figure out how to write an
     incremental garbage collector.

   * Write a compiler that takes bytecode and spits out C code.
     Unfortunately, you will then need a C compiler and a more fully
     developed module system.

   * Speed up redisplay.

   * Speed up syntax highlighting.  Maybe moving some of the syntax
     highlighting capabilities into C would make a difference.

   * Implement tail recursion in Emacs Lisp (hard!).

   Unfortunately, Emacs Lisp is slow, and is going to stay slow.
Function calls in elisp are especially expensive.  Iterating over a
long list is going to be 30 times faster implemented in C than in Elisp.

   Heavily used small code fragments need to be fast.  The traditional
way to implement such code fragments in C is with macros.  But macros
in C are known to be broken.

   Macro arguments that are repeatedly evaluated may suffer from
repeated side effects or suboptimal performance.

   Variable names used in macros may collide with caller's variables,
causing (at least) unwanted compiler warnings.

   In order to solve these problems, and maintain statement semantics,
one should use the `do { ... } while (0)' trick while trying to
reference macro arguments exactly once using local variables.

   Let's take a look at this poor macro definition:

     #define MARK_OBJECT(obj) \
       if (!marked_p (obj)) mark_object (obj), did_mark = 1

   This macro evaluates its argument twice, and also fails if used like
this:
       if (flag) MARK_OBJECT (obj); else do_something();

   A much better definition is

     #define MARK_OBJECT(obj) do { \
       Lisp_Object mo_obj = (obj); \
       if (!marked_p (mo_obj))     \
         {                         \
           mark_object (mo_obj);   \
           did_mark = 1;           \
         }                         \
     } while (0)

   Notice the elimination of double evaluation by using the local
variable with the obscure name.  Writing safe and efficient macros
requires great care.  The one problem with macros that cannot be
portably worked around is, since a C block has no value, a macro used
as an expression rather than a statement cannot use the techniques just
described to avoid multiple evaluation.

   In most cases where a macro has function semantics, an inline
function is a better implementation technique.  Modern compiler
optimizers tend to inline functions even if they have no `inline'
keyword, and configure magic ensures that the `inline' keyword can be
safely used as an additional compiler hint.  Inline functions used in a
single .c files are easy.  The function must already be defined to be
`static'.  Just add another `inline' keyword to the definition.

     inline static int
     heavily_used_small_function (int arg)
     {
       ...
     }

   Inline functions in header files are trickier, because we would like
to make the following optimization if the function is _not_ inlined
(for example, because we're compiling for debugging).  We would like the
function to be defined externally exactly once, and each calling
translation unit would create an external reference to the function,
instead of including a definition of the inline function in the object
code of every translation unit that uses it.  This optimization is
currently only available for gcc.  But you don't have to worry about the
trickiness; just define your inline functions in header files using this
pattern:

     INLINE_HEADER int
     i_used_to_be_a_crufty_macro_but_look_at_me_now (int arg);
     INLINE_HEADER int
     i_used_to_be_a_crufty_macro_but_look_at_me_now (int arg)
     {
       ...
     }

   The declaration right before the definition is to prevent warnings
when compiling with `gcc -Wmissing-declarations'.  I consider issuing
this warning for inline functions a gcc bug, but the gcc maintainers
disagree.

   Every header which contains inline functions, either directly by
using `INLINE_HEADER' or indirectly by using `DECLARE_LRECORD' must be
added to `inline.c''s includes to make the optimization described above
work.  (Optimization note: if all INLINE_HEADER functions are in fact
inlined in all translation units, then the linker can just discard
`inline.o', since it contains only unreferenced code).

   To get started debugging XEmacs, take a look at the `.gdbinit' and
`.dbxrc' files in the `src' directory.  See the section in the XEmacs
FAQ on How to Debug an XEmacs problem with a debugger.

   After making source code changes, run `make check' to ensure that
you haven't introduced any regressions.  If you want to make xemacs more
reliable, please improve the test suite in `tests/automated'.

   Did you make sure you didn't introduce any new compiler warnings?

   Before submitting a patch, please try compiling at least once with

     configure --with-mule --with-union-type --error-checking=all

   Here are things to know when you create a new source file:

   * All `.c' files should `#include <config.h>' first.  Almost all
     `.c' files should `#include "lisp.h"' second.

   * Generated header files should be included using the `#include
     <...>' syntax, not the `#include "..."' syntax.  The generated
     headers are:

     `config.h sheap-adjust.h paths.h Emacs.ad.h'

     The basic rule is that you should assume builds using `--srcdir'
     and the `#include <...>' syntax needs to be used when the
     to-be-included generated file is in a potentially different
     directory _at compile time_.  The non-obvious C rule is that
     `#include "..."' means to search for the included file in the same
     directory as the including file, _not_ in the current directory.

   * Header files should _not_ include `<config.h>' and `"lisp.h"'.  It
     is the responsibility of the `.c' files that use it to do so.


   Here is a checklist of things to do when creating a new lisp object
type named FOO:

  1. create FOO.h

  2. create FOO.c

  3. add definitions of `syms_of_FOO', etc. to `FOO.c'

  4. add declarations of `syms_of_FOO', etc. to `symsinit.h'

  5. add calls to `syms_of_FOO', etc. to `emacs.c'

  6. add definitions of macros like `CHECK_FOO' and `FOOP' to `FOO.h'

  7. add the new type index to `enum lrecord_type'

  8. add a DEFINE_LRECORD_IMPLEMENTATION call to `FOO.c'

  9. add an INIT_LRECORD_IMPLEMENTATION call to `syms_of_FOO.c'

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules,  Next: Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp,  Prev: Rules When Writing New C Code,  Up: Top

A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules
***************************************

   This is accurate as of XEmacs 20.0.

* Menu:

* Low-Level Modules::
* Basic Lisp Modules::
* Modules for Standard Editing Operations::
* Editor-Level Control Flow Modules::
* Modules for the Basic Displayable Lisp Objects::
* Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects::
* Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism::
* Modules for Interfacing with the File System::
* Modules for Other Aspects of the Lisp Interpreter and Object System::
* Modules for Interfacing with the Operating System::
* Modules for Interfacing with X Windows::
* Modules for Internationalization::

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Low-Level Modules,  Next: Basic Lisp Modules,  Prev: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Low-Level Modules
=================

     config.h

   This is automatically generated from `config.h.in' based on the
results of configure tests and user-selected optional features and
contains preprocessor definitions specifying the nature of the
environment in which XEmacs is being compiled.

     paths.h

   This is automatically generated from `paths.h.in' based on supplied
configure values, and allows for non-standard installed configurations
of the XEmacs directories.  It's currently broken, though.

     emacs.c
     signal.c

   `emacs.c' contains `main()' and other code that performs the most
basic environment initializations and handles shutting down the XEmacs
process (this includes `kill-emacs', the normal way that XEmacs is
exited; `dump-emacs', which is used during the build process to write
out the XEmacs executable; `run-emacs-from-temacs', which can be used
to start XEmacs directly when temacs has finished loading all the Lisp
code; and emergency code to handle crashes [XEmacs tries to auto-save
all files before it crashes]).

   Low-level code that directly interacts with the Unix signal
mechanism, however, is in `signal.c'.  Note that this code does not
handle system dependencies in interfacing to signals; that is handled
using the `syssignal.h' header file, described in section J below.

     unexaix.c
     unexalpha.c
     unexapollo.c
     unexconvex.c
     unexec.c
     unexelf.c
     unexelfsgi.c
     unexencap.c
     unexenix.c
     unexfreebsd.c
     unexfx2800.c
     unexhp9k3.c
     unexhp9k800.c
     unexmips.c
     unexnext.c
     unexsol2.c
     unexsunos4.c

   These modules contain code dumping out the XEmacs executable on
various different systems. (This process is highly machine-specific and
requires intimate knowledge of the executable format and the memory map
of the process.) Only one of these modules is actually used; this is
chosen by `configure'.

     crt0.c
     lastfile.c
     pre-crt0.c

   These modules are used in conjunction with the dump mechanism.  On
some systems, an alternative version of the C startup code (the actual
code that receives control from the operating system when the process is
started, and which calls `main()') is required so that the dumping
process works properly; `crt0.c' provides this.

   `pre-crt0.c' and `lastfile.c' should be the very first and very last
file linked, respectively. (Actually, this is not really true.
`lastfile.c' should be after all Emacs modules whose initialized data
should be made constant, and before all other Emacs files and all
libraries.  In particular, the allocation modules `gmalloc.c',
`alloca.c', etc. are normally placed past `lastfile.c', and all of the
files that implement Xt widget classes _must_ be placed after
`lastfile.c' because they contain various structures that must be
statically initialized and into which Xt writes at various times.)
`pre-crt0.c' and `lastfile.c' contain exported symbols that are used to
determine the start and end of XEmacs' initialized data space when
dumping.

     alloca.c
     free-hook.c
     getpagesize.h
     gmalloc.c
     malloc.c
     mem-limits.h
     ralloc.c
     vm-limit.c

   These handle basic C allocation of memory.  `alloca.c' is an
emulation of the stack allocation function `alloca()' on machines that
lack this. (XEmacs makes extensive use of `alloca()' in its code.)

   `gmalloc.c' and `malloc.c' are two implementations of the standard C
functions `malloc()', `realloc()' and `free()'.  They are often used in
place of the standard system-provided `malloc()' because they usually
provide a much faster implementation, at the expense of additional
memory use.  `gmalloc.c' is a newer implementation that is much more
memory-efficient for large allocations than `malloc.c', and should
always be preferred if it works. (At one point, `gmalloc.c' didn't work
on some systems where `malloc.c' worked; but this should be fixed now.)

   `ralloc.c' is the "relocating allocator".  It provides functions
similar to `malloc()', `realloc()' and `free()' that allocate memory
that can be dynamically relocated in memory.  The advantage of this is
that allocated memory can be shuffled around to place all the free
memory at the end of the heap, and the heap can then be shrunk,
releasing the memory back to the operating system.  The use of this can
be controlled with the configure option `--rel-alloc'; if enabled,
memory allocated for buffers will be relocatable, so that if a very
large file is visited and the buffer is later killed, the memory can be
released to the operating system.  (The disadvantage of this mechanism
is that it can be very slow.  On systems with the `mmap()' system call,
the XEmacs version of `ralloc.c' uses this to move memory around
without actually having to block-copy it, which can speed things up;
but it can still cause noticeable performance degradation.)

   `free-hook.c' contains some debugging functions for checking for
invalid arguments to `free()'.

   `vm-limit.c' contains some functions that warn the user when memory
is getting low.  These are callback functions that are called by
`gmalloc.c' and `malloc.c' at appropriate times.

   `getpagesize.h' provides a uniform interface for retrieving the size
of a page in virtual memory.  `mem-limits.h' provides a uniform
interface for retrieving the total amount of available virtual memory.
Both are similar in spirit to the `sys*.h' files described in section
J, below.

     blocktype.c
     blocktype.h
     dynarr.c

   These implement a couple of basic C data types to facilitate memory
allocation.  The `Blocktype' type efficiently manages the allocation of
fixed-size blocks by minimizing the number of times that `malloc()' and
`free()' are called.  It allocates memory in large chunks, subdivides
the chunks into blocks of the proper size, and returns the blocks as
requested.  When blocks are freed, they are placed onto a linked list,
so they can be efficiently reused.  This data type is not much used in
XEmacs currently, because it's a fairly new addition.

   The `Dynarr' type implements a "dynamic array", which is similar to
a standard C array but has no fixed limit on the number of elements it
can contain.  Dynamic arrays can hold elements of any type, and when
you add a new element, the array automatically resizes itself if it
isn't big enough.  Dynarrs are extensively used in the redisplay
mechanism.

     inline.c

   This module is used in connection with inline functions (available in
some compilers).  Often, inline functions need to have a corresponding
non-inline function that does the same thing.  This module is where they
reside.  It contains no actual code, but defines some special flags that
cause inline functions defined in header files to be rendered as actual
functions.  It then includes all header files that contain any inline
function definitions, so that each one gets a real function equivalent.

     debug.c
     debug.h

   These functions provide a system for doing internal consistency
checks during code development.  This system is not currently used;
instead the simpler `assert()' macro is used along with the various
checks provided by the `--error-check-*' configuration options.

     prefix-args.c

   This is actually the source for a small, self-contained program used
during building.

     universe.h

   This is not currently used.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Basic Lisp Modules,  Next: Modules for Standard Editing Operations,  Prev: Low-Level Modules,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Basic Lisp Modules
==================

     emacsfns.h
     lisp-disunion.h
     lisp-union.h
     lisp.h
     lrecord.h
     symsinit.h

   These are the basic header files for all XEmacs modules.  Each module
includes `lisp.h', which brings the other header files in.  `lisp.h'
contains the definitions of the structures and extractor and
constructor macros for the basic Lisp objects and various other basic
definitions for the Lisp environment, as well as some general-purpose
definitions (e.g. `min()' and `max()').  `lisp.h' includes either
`lisp-disunion.h' or `lisp-union.h', depending on whether
`USE_UNION_TYPE' is defined.  These files define the typedef of the
Lisp object itself (as described above) and the low-level macros that
hide the actual implementation of the Lisp object.  All extractor and
constructor macros for particular types of Lisp objects are defined in
terms of these low-level macros.

   As a general rule, all typedefs should go into the typedefs section
of `lisp.h' rather than into a module-specific header file even if the
structure is defined elsewhere.  This allows function prototypes that
use the typedef to be placed into other header files.  Forward structure
declarations (i.e. a simple declaration like `struct foo;' where the
structure itself is defined elsewhere) should be placed into the
typedefs section as necessary.

   `lrecord.h' contains the basic structures and macros that implement
all record-type Lisp objects--i.e. all objects whose type is a field in
their C structure, which includes all objects except the few most basic
ones.

   `lisp.h' contains prototypes for most of the exported functions in
the various modules.  Lisp primitives defined using `DEFUN' that need
to be called by C code should be declared using `EXFUN'.  Other
function prototypes should be placed either into the appropriate
section of `lisp.h', or into a module-specific header file, depending
on how general-purpose the function is and whether it has
special-purpose argument types requiring definitions not in `lisp.h'.)
All initialization functions are prototyped in `symsinit.h'.

     alloc.c

   The large module `alloc.c' implements all of the basic allocation and
garbage collection for Lisp objects.  The most commonly used Lisp
objects are allocated in chunks, similar to the Blocktype data type
described above; others are allocated in individually `malloc()'ed
blocks.  This module provides the foundation on which all other aspects
of the Lisp environment sit, and is the first module initialized at
startup.

   Note that `alloc.c' provides a series of generic functions that are
not dependent on any particular object type, and interfaces to
particular types of objects using a standardized interface of
type-specific methods.  This scheme is a fundamental principle of
object-oriented programming and is heavily used throughout XEmacs.  The
great advantage of this is that it allows for a clean separation of
functionality into different modules--new classes of Lisp objects, new
event interfaces, new device types, new stream interfaces, etc. can be
added transparently without affecting code anywhere else in XEmacs.
Because the different subsystems are divided into general and specific
code, adding a new subtype within a subsystem will in general not
require changes to the generic subsystem code or affect any of the other
subtypes in the subsystem; this provides a great deal of robustness to
the XEmacs code.

     eval.c
     backtrace.h

   This module contains all of the functions to handle the flow of
control.  This includes the mechanisms of defining functions, calling
functions, traversing stack frames, and binding variables; the control
primitives and other special forms such as `while', `if', `eval',
`let', `and', `or', `progn', etc.; handling of non-local exits,
unwind-protects, and exception handlers; entering the debugger; methods
for the subr Lisp object type; etc.  It does _not_ include the `read'
function, the `print' function, or the handling of symbols and obarrays.

   `backtrace.h' contains some structures related to stack frames and
the flow of control.

     lread.c

   This module implements the Lisp reader and the `read' function,
which converts text into Lisp objects, according to the read syntax of
the objects, as described above.  This is similar to the parser that is
a part of all compilers.

     print.c

   This module implements the Lisp print mechanism and the `print'
function and related functions.  This is the inverse of the Lisp reader
- it converts Lisp objects to a printed, textual representation.
(Hopefully something that can be read back in using `read' to get an
equivalent object.)

     general.c
     symbols.c
     symeval.h

   `symbols.c' implements the handling of symbols, obarrays, and
retrieving the values of symbols.  Much of the code is devoted to
handling the special "symbol-value-magic" objects that define special
types of variables--this includes buffer-local variables, variable
aliases, variables that forward into C variables, etc.  This module is
initialized extremely early (right after `alloc.c'), because it is here
that the basic symbols `t' and `nil' are created, and those symbols are
used everywhere throughout XEmacs.

   `symeval.h' contains the definitions of symbol structures and the
`DEFVAR_LISP()' and related macros for declaring variables.

     data.c
     floatfns.c
     fns.c

   These modules implement the methods and standard Lisp primitives for
all the basic Lisp object types other than symbols (which are described
above).  `data.c' contains all the predicates (primitives that return
whether an object is of a particular type); the integer arithmetic
functions; and the basic accessor and mutator primitives for the various
object types.  `fns.c' contains all the standard predicates for working
with sequences (where, abstractly speaking, a sequence is an ordered set
of objects, and can be represented by a list, string, vector, or
bit-vector); it also contains `equal', perhaps on the grounds that bulk
of the operation of `equal' is comparing sequences.  `floatfns.c'
contains methods and primitives for floats and floating-point
arithmetic.

     bytecode.c
     bytecode.h

   `bytecode.c' implements the byte-code interpreter and
compiled-function objects, and `bytecode.h' contains associated
structures.  Note that the byte-code _compiler_ is written in Lisp.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for Standard Editing Operations,  Next: Editor-Level Control Flow Modules,  Prev: Basic Lisp Modules,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for Standard Editing Operations
=======================================

     buffer.c
     buffer.h
     bufslots.h

   `buffer.c' implements the "buffer" Lisp object type.  This includes
functions that create and destroy buffers; retrieve buffers by name or
by other properties; manipulate lists of buffers (remember that buffers
are permanent objects and stored in various ordered lists); retrieve or
change buffer properties; etc.  It also contains the definitions of all
the built-in buffer-local variables (which can be viewed as buffer
properties).  It does _not_ contain code to manipulate buffer-local
variables (that's in `symbols.c', described above); or code to
manipulate the text in a buffer.

   `buffer.h' defines the structures associated with a buffer and the
various macros for retrieving text from a buffer and special buffer
positions (e.g. `point', the default location for text insertion).  It
also contains macros for working with buffer positions and converting
between their representations as character offsets and as byte offsets
(under MULE, they are different, because characters can be multi-byte).
It is one of the largest header files.

   `bufslots.h' defines the fields in the buffer structure that
correspond to the built-in buffer-local variables.  It is its own
header file because it is included many times in `buffer.c', as a way
of iterating over all the built-in buffer-local variables.

     insdel.c
     insdel.h

   `insdel.c' contains low-level functions for inserting and deleting
text in a buffer, keeping track of changed regions for use by
redisplay, and calling any before-change and after-change functions
that may have been registered for the buffer.  It also contains the
actual functions that convert between byte offsets and character
offsets.

   `insdel.h' contains associated headers.

     marker.c

   This module implements the "marker" Lisp object type, which
conceptually is a pointer to a text position in a buffer that moves
around as text is inserted and deleted, so as to remain in the same
relative position.  This module doesn't actually move the markers around
- that's handled in `insdel.c'.  This module just creates them and
implements the primitives for working with them.  As markers are simple
objects, this does not entail much.

   Note that the standard arithmetic primitives (e.g. `+') accept
markers in place of integers and automatically substitute the value of
`marker-position' for the marker, i.e. an integer describing the
current buffer position of the marker.

     extents.c
     extents.h

   This module implements the "extent" Lisp object type, which is like
a marker that works over a range of text rather than a single position.
Extents are also much more complex and powerful than markers and have a
more efficient (and more algorithmically complex) implementation.  The
implementation is described in detail in comments in `extents.c'.

   The code in `extents.c' works closely with `insdel.c' so that
extents are properly moved around as text is inserted and deleted.
There is also code in `extents.c' that provides information needed by
the redisplay mechanism for efficient operation. (Remember that extents
can have display properties that affect [sometimes drastically, as in
the `invisible' property] the display of the text they cover.)

     editfns.c

   `editfns.c' contains the standard Lisp primitives for working with a
buffer's text, and calls the low-level functions in `insdel.c'.  It
also contains primitives for working with `point' (the default buffer
insertion location).

   `editfns.c' also contains functions for retrieving various
characteristics from the external environment: the current time, the
process ID of the running XEmacs process, the name of the user who ran
this XEmacs process, etc.  It's not clear why this code is in
`editfns.c'.

     callint.c
     cmds.c
     commands.h

   These modules implement the basic "interactive" commands, i.e.
user-callable functions.  Commands, as opposed to other functions, have
special ways of getting their parameters interactively (by querying the
user), as opposed to having them passed in a normal function
invocation.  Many commands are not really meant to be called from other
Lisp functions, because they modify global state in a way that's often
undesired as part of other Lisp functions.

   `callint.c' implements the mechanism for querying the user for
parameters and calling interactive commands.  The bulk of this module is
code that parses the interactive spec that is supplied with an
interactive command.

   `cmds.c' implements the basic, most commonly used editing commands:
commands to move around the current buffer and insert and delete
characters.  These commands are implemented using the Lisp primitives
defined in `editfns.c'.

   `commands.h' contains associated structure definitions and
prototypes.

     regex.c
     regex.h
     search.c

   `search.c' implements the Lisp primitives for searching for text in
a buffer, and some of the low-level algorithms for doing this.  In
particular, the fast fixed-string Boyer-Moore search algorithm is
implemented in `search.c'.  The low-level algorithms for doing
regular-expression searching, however, are implemented in `regex.c' and
`regex.h'.  These two modules are largely independent of XEmacs, and
are similar to (and based upon) the regular-expression routines used in
`grep' and other GNU utilities.

     doprnt.c

   `doprnt.c' implements formatted-string processing, similar to
`printf()' command in C.

     undo.c

   This module implements the undo mechanism for tracking buffer
changes.  Most of this could be implemented in Lisp.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Editor-Level Control Flow Modules,  Next: Modules for the Basic Displayable Lisp Objects,  Prev: Modules for Standard Editing Operations,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Editor-Level Control Flow Modules
=================================

     event-Xt.c
     event-stream.c
     event-tty.c
     events.c
     events.h

   These implement the handling of events (user input and other system
notifications).

   `events.c' and `events.h' define the "event" Lisp object type and
primitives for manipulating it.

   `event-stream.c' implements the basic functions for working with
event queues, dispatching an event by looking it up in relevant keymaps
and such, and handling timeouts; this includes the primitives
`next-event' and `dispatch-event', as well as related primitives such
as `sit-for', `sleep-for', and `accept-process-output'.
(`event-stream.c' is one of the hairiest and trickiest modules in
XEmacs.  Beware!  You can easily mess things up here.)

   `event-Xt.c' and `event-tty.c' implement the low-level interfaces
onto retrieving events from Xt (the X toolkit) and from TTY's (using
`read()' and `select()'), respectively.  The event interface enforces a
clean separation between the specific code for interfacing with the
operating system and the generic code for working with events, by
defining an API of basic, low-level event methods; `event-Xt.c' and
`event-tty.c' are two different implementations of this API.  To add
support for a new operating system (e.g. NeXTstep), one merely needs to
provide another implementation of those API functions.

   Note that the choice of whether to use `event-Xt.c' or `event-tty.c'
is made at compile time!  Or at the very latest, it is made at startup
time.  `event-Xt.c' handles events for _both_ X and TTY frames;
`event-tty.c' is only used when X support is not compiled into XEmacs.
The reason for this is that there is only one event loop in XEmacs:
thus, it needs to be able to receive events from all different kinds of
frames.

     keymap.c
     keymap.h

   `keymap.c' and `keymap.h' define the "keymap" Lisp object type and
associated methods and primitives. (Remember that keymaps are objects
that associate event descriptions with functions to be called to
"execute" those events; `dispatch-event' looks up events in the
relevant keymaps.)

     keyboard.c

   `keyboard.c' contains functions that implement the actual editor
command loop--i.e. the event loop that cyclically retrieves and
dispatches events.  This code is also rather tricky, just like
`event-stream.c'.

     macros.c
     macros.h

   These two modules contain the basic code for defining keyboard
macros.  These functions don't actually do much; most of the code that
handles keyboard macros is mixed in with the event-handling code in
`event-stream.c'.

     minibuf.c

   This contains some miscellaneous code related to the minibuffer
(most of the minibuffer code was moved into Lisp by Richard Mlynarik).
This includes the primitives for completion (although filename
completion is in `dired.c'), the lowest-level interface to the
minibuffer (if the command loop were cleaned up, this too could be in
Lisp), and code for dealing with the echo area (this, too, was mostly
moved into Lisp, and the only code remaining is code to call out to
Lisp or provide simple bootstrapping implementations early in temacs,
before the echo-area Lisp code is loaded).

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for the Basic Displayable Lisp Objects,  Next: Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects,  Prev: Editor-Level Control Flow Modules,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for the Basic Displayable Lisp Objects
==============================================

     device-ns.h
     device-stream.c
     device-stream.h
     device-tty.c
     device-tty.h
     device-x.c
     device-x.h
     device.c
     device.h

   These modules implement the "device" Lisp object type.  This
abstracts a particular screen or connection on which frames are
displayed.  As with Lisp objects, event interfaces, and other
subsystems, the device code is separated into a generic component that
contains a standardized interface (in the form of a set of methods) onto
particular device types.

   The device subsystem defines all the methods and provides method
services for not only device operations but also for the frame, window,
menubar, scrollbar, toolbar, and other displayable-object subsystems.
The reason for this is that all of these subsystems have the same
subtypes (X, TTY, NeXTstep, Microsoft Windows, etc.) as devices do.

     frame-ns.h
     frame-tty.c
     frame-x.c
     frame-x.h
     frame.c
     frame.h

   Each device contains one or more frames in which objects (e.g. text)
are displayed.  A frame corresponds to a window in the window system;
usually this is a top-level window but it could potentially be one of a
number of overlapping child windows within a top-level window, using the
MDI (Multiple Document Interface) protocol in Microsoft Windows or a
similar scheme.

   The `frame-*' files implement the "frame" Lisp object type and
provide the generic and device-type-specific operations on frames (e.g.
raising, lowering, resizing, moving, etc.).

     window.c
     window.h

   Each frame consists of one or more non-overlapping "windows" (better
known as "panes" in standard window-system terminology) in which a
buffer's text can be displayed.  Windows can also have scrollbars
displayed around their edges.

   `window.c' and `window.h' implement the "window" Lisp object type
and provide code to manage windows.  Since windows have no associated
resources in the window system (the window system knows only about the
frame; no child windows or anything are used for XEmacs windows), there
is no device-type-specific code here; all of that code is part of the
redisplay mechanism or the code for particular object types such as
scrollbars.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects,  Next: Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism,  Prev: Modules for the Basic Displayable Lisp Objects,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects
==============================================

     faces.c
     faces.h

     bitmaps.h
     glyphs-ns.h
     glyphs-x.c
     glyphs-x.h
     glyphs.c
     glyphs.h

     objects-ns.h
     objects-tty.c
     objects-tty.h
     objects-x.c
     objects-x.h
     objects.c
     objects.h

     menubar-x.c
     menubar.c

     scrollbar-x.c
     scrollbar-x.h
     scrollbar.c
     scrollbar.h

     toolbar-x.c
     toolbar.c
     toolbar.h

     font-lock.c

   This file provides C support for syntax highlighting--i.e.
highlighting different syntactic constructs of a source file in
different colors, for easy reading.  The C support is provided so that
this is fast.

     dgif_lib.c
     gif_err.c
     gif_lib.h
     gifalloc.c

   These modules decode GIF-format image files, for use with glyphs.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism,  Next: Modules for Interfacing with the File System,  Prev: Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism
===================================

     redisplay-output.c
     redisplay-tty.c
     redisplay-x.c
     redisplay.c
     redisplay.h

   These files provide the redisplay mechanism.  As with many other
subsystems in XEmacs, there is a clean separation between the general
and device-specific support.

   `redisplay.c' contains the bulk of the redisplay engine.  These
functions update the redisplay structures (which describe how the screen
is to appear) to reflect any changes made to the state of any
displayable objects (buffer, frame, window, etc.) since the last time
that redisplay was called.  These functions are highly optimized to
avoid doing more work than necessary (since redisplay is called
extremely often and is potentially a huge time sink), and depend heavily
on notifications from the objects themselves that changes have occurred,
so that redisplay doesn't explicitly have to check each possible object.
The redisplay mechanism also contains a great deal of caching to further
speed things up; some of this caching is contained within the various
displayable objects.

   `redisplay-output.c' goes through the redisplay structures and
converts them into calls to device-specific methods to actually output
the screen changes.

   `redisplay-x.c' and `redisplay-tty.c' are two implementations of
these redisplay output methods, for X frames and TTY frames,
respectively.

     indent.c

   This module contains various functions and Lisp primitives for
converting between buffer positions and screen positions.  These
functions call the redisplay mechanism to do most of the work, and then
examine the redisplay structures to get the necessary information.  This
module needs work.

     termcap.c
     terminfo.c
     tparam.c

   These files contain functions for working with the termcap
(BSD-style) and terminfo (System V style) databases of terminal
capabilities and escape sequences, used when XEmacs is displaying in a
TTY.

     cm.c
     cm.h

   These files provide some miscellaneous TTY-output functions and
should probably be merged into `redisplay-tty.c'.