[chise/xemacs-chise.git-] / info / internals.info-4

This is ../info/internals.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.0 from
internals/internals.texi.

INFO-DIR-SECTION XEmacs Editor
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Internals: (internals).       XEmacs Internals Manual.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   Copyright (C) 1992 - 1996 Ben Wing.  Copyright (C) 1996, 1997 Sun
Microsystems.  Copyright (C) 1994 - 1998 Free Software Foundation.
Copyright (C) 1994, 1995 Board of Trustees, University of Illinois.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a
translation approved by the Foundation.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
Foundation instead of in the original English.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects,  Next: Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism,  Prev: Modules for the Basic Displayable Lisp Objects,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects
==============================================

     faces.c
     faces.h

     bitmaps.h
     glyphs-eimage.c
     glyphs-msw.c
     glyphs-msw.h
     glyphs-widget.c
     glyphs-x.c
     glyphs-x.h
     glyphs.c
     glyphs.h

     objects-msw.c
     objects-msw.h
     objects-tty.c
     objects-tty.h
     objects-x.c
     objects-x.h
     objects.c
     objects.h

     menubar-msw.c
     menubar-msw.h
     menubar-x.c
     menubar.c
     menubar.h

     scrollbar-msw.c
     scrollbar-msw.h
     scrollbar-x.c
     scrollbar-x.h
     scrollbar.c
     scrollbar.h

     toolbar-msw.c
     toolbar-x.c
     toolbar.c
     toolbar.h

     font-lock.c

   This file provides C support for syntax highlighting--i.e.
highlighting different syntactic constructs of a source file in
different colors, for easy reading.  The C support is provided so that
this is fast.

     dgif_lib.c
     gif_err.c
     gif_lib.h
     gifalloc.c

   These modules decode GIF-format image files, for use with glyphs.
These files were removed due to Unisys patent infringement concerns.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism,  Next: Modules for Interfacing with the File System,  Prev: Modules for other Display-Related Lisp Objects,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism
===================================

     redisplay-output.c
     redisplay-msw.c
     redisplay-tty.c
     redisplay-x.c
     redisplay.c
     redisplay.h

   These files provide the redisplay mechanism.  As with many other
subsystems in XEmacs, there is a clean separation between the general
and device-specific support.

   `redisplay.c' contains the bulk of the redisplay engine.  These
functions update the redisplay structures (which describe how the screen
is to appear) to reflect any changes made to the state of any
displayable objects (buffer, frame, window, etc.) since the last time
that redisplay was called.  These functions are highly optimized to
avoid doing more work than necessary (since redisplay is called
extremely often and is potentially a huge time sink), and depend heavily
on notifications from the objects themselves that changes have occurred,
so that redisplay doesn't explicitly have to check each possible object.
The redisplay mechanism also contains a great deal of caching to further
speed things up; some of this caching is contained within the various
displayable objects.

   `redisplay-output.c' goes through the redisplay structures and
converts them into calls to device-specific methods to actually output
the screen changes.

   `redisplay-x.c' and `redisplay-tty.c' are two implementations of
these redisplay output methods, for X frames and TTY frames,
respectively.

     indent.c

   This module contains various functions and Lisp primitives for
converting between buffer positions and screen positions.  These
functions call the redisplay mechanism to do most of the work, and then
examine the redisplay structures to get the necessary information.  This
module needs work.

     termcap.c
     terminfo.c
     tparam.c

   These files contain functions for working with the termcap
(BSD-style) and terminfo (System V style) databases of terminal
capabilities and escape sequences, used when XEmacs is displaying in a
TTY.

     cm.c
     cm.h

   These files provide some miscellaneous TTY-output functions and
should probably be merged into `redisplay-tty.c'.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for Interfacing with the File System,  Next: Modules for Other Aspects of the Lisp Interpreter and Object System,  Prev: Modules for the Redisplay Mechanism,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for Interfacing with the File System
============================================

     lstream.c
     lstream.h

   These modules implement the "stream" Lisp object type.  This is an
internal-only Lisp object that implements a generic buffering stream.
The idea is to provide a uniform interface onto all sources and sinks of
data, including file descriptors, stdio streams, chunks of memory, Lisp
buffers, Lisp strings, etc.  That way, I/O functions can be written to
the stream interface and can transparently handle all possible sources
and sinks.  (For example, the `read' function can read data from a
file, a string, a buffer, or even a function that is called repeatedly
to return data, without worrying about where the data is coming from or
what-size chunks it is returned in.)

   Note that in the C code, streams are called "lstreams" (for "Lisp
streams") to distinguish them from other kinds of streams, e.g. stdio
streams and C++ I/O streams.

   Similar to other subsystems in XEmacs, lstreams are separated into
generic functions and a set of methods for the different types of
lstreams.  `lstream.c' provides implementations of many different types
of streams; others are provided, e.g., in `file-coding.c'.

     fileio.c

   This implements the basic primitives for interfacing with the file
system.  This includes primitives for reading files into buffers,
writing buffers into files, checking for the presence or accessibility
of files, canonicalizing file names, etc.  Note that these primitives
are usually not invoked directly by the user: There is a great deal of
higher-level Lisp code that implements the user commands such as
`find-file' and `save-buffer'.  This is similar to the distinction
between the lower-level primitives in `editfns.c' and the higher-level
user commands in `commands.c' and `simple.el'.

     filelock.c

   This file provides functions for detecting clashes between different
processes (e.g. XEmacs and some external process, or two different
XEmacs processes) modifying the same file.  (XEmacs can optionally use
the `lock/' subdirectory to provide a form of "locking" between
different XEmacs processes.)  This module is also used by the low-level
functions in `insdel.c' to ensure that, if the first modification is
being made to a buffer whose corresponding file has been externally
modified, the user is made aware of this so that the buffer can be
synched up with the external changes if necessary.

     filemode.c

   This file provides some miscellaneous functions that construct a
`rwxr-xr-x'-type permissions string (as might appear in an `ls'-style
directory listing) given the information returned by the `stat()'
system call.

     dired.c
     ndir.h

   These files implement the XEmacs interface to directory searching.
This includes a number of primitives for determining the files in a
directory and for doing filename completion. (Remember that generic
completion is handled by a different mechanism, in `minibuf.c'.)

   `ndir.h' is a header file used for the directory-searching emulation
functions provided in `sysdep.c' (see section J below), for systems
that don't provide any directory-searching functions. (On those
systems, directories can be read directly as files, and parsed.)

     realpath.c

   This file provides an implementation of the `realpath()' function
for expanding symbolic links, on systems that don't implement it or have
a broken implementation.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for Other Aspects of the Lisp Interpreter and Object System,  Next: Modules for Interfacing with the Operating System,  Prev: Modules for Interfacing with the File System,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for Other Aspects of the Lisp Interpreter and Object System
===================================================================

     elhash.c
     elhash.h
     hash.c
     hash.h

   These files provide two implementations of hash tables.  Files
`hash.c' and `hash.h' provide a generic C implementation of hash tables
which can stand independently of XEmacs.  Files `elhash.c' and
`elhash.h' provide a separate implementation of hash tables that can
store only Lisp objects, and knows about Lispy things like garbage
collection, and implement the "hash-table" Lisp object type.

     specifier.c
     specifier.h

   This module implements the "specifier" Lisp object type.  This is
primarily used for displayable properties, and allows for values that
are specific to a particular buffer, window, frame, device, or device
class, as well as a default value existing.  This is used, for example,
to control the height of the horizontal scrollbar or the appearance of
the `default', `bold', or other faces.  The specifier object consists
of a number of specifications, each of which maps from a buffer,
window, etc. to a value.  The function `specifier-instance' looks up a
value given a window (from which a buffer, frame, and device can be
derived).

     chartab.c
     chartab.h
     casetab.c

   `chartab.c' and `chartab.h' implement the "char table" Lisp object
type, which maps from characters or certain sorts of character ranges
to Lisp objects.  The implementation of this object type is optimized
for the internal representation of characters.  Char tables come in
different types, which affect the allowed object types to which a
character can be mapped and also dictate certain other properties of
the char table.

   `casetab.c' implements one sort of char table, the "case table",
which maps characters to other characters of possibly different case.
These are used by XEmacs to implement case-changing primitives and to
do case-insensitive searching.

     syntax.c
     syntax.h

   This module implements "syntax tables", another sort of char table
that maps characters into syntax classes that define the syntax of these
characters (e.g. a parenthesis belongs to a class of `open' characters
that have corresponding `close' characters and can be nested).  This
module also implements the Lisp "scanner", a set of primitives for
scanning over text based on syntax tables.  This is used, for example,
to find the matching parenthesis in a command such as `forward-sexp',
and by `font-lock.c' to locate quoted strings, comments, etc.

     casefiddle.c

   This module implements various Lisp primitives for upcasing,
downcasing and capitalizing strings or regions of buffers.

     rangetab.c

   This module implements the "range table" Lisp object type, which
provides for a mapping from ranges of integers to arbitrary Lisp
objects.

     opaque.c
     opaque.h

   This module implements the "opaque" Lisp object type, an
internal-only Lisp object that encapsulates an arbitrary block of memory
so that it can be managed by the Lisp allocation system.  To create an
opaque object, you call `make_opaque()', passing a pointer to a block
of memory.  An object is created that is big enough to hold the memory,
which is copied into the object's storage.  The object will then stick
around as long as you keep pointers to it, after which it will be
automatically reclaimed.

   Opaque objects can also have an arbitrary "mark method" associated
with them, in case the block of memory contains other Lisp objects that
need to be marked for garbage-collection purposes. (If you need other
object methods, such as a finalize method, you should just go ahead and
create a new Lisp object type--it's not hard.)

     abbrev.c

   This function provides a few primitives for doing dynamic
abbreviation expansion.  In XEmacs, most of the code for this has been
moved into Lisp.  Some C code remains for speed and because the
primitive `self-insert-command' (which is executed for all
self-inserting characters) hooks into the abbrev mechanism.
(`self-insert-command' is itself in C only for speed.)

     doc.c

   This function provides primitives for retrieving the documentation
strings of functions and variables.  These documentation strings contain
certain special markers that get dynamically expanded (e.g. a
reverse-lookup is performed on some named functions to retrieve their
current key bindings).  Some documentation strings (in particular, for
the built-in primitives and pre-loaded Lisp functions) are stored
externally in a file `DOC' in the `lib-src/' directory and need to be
fetched from that file. (Part of the build stage involves building this
file, and another part involves constructing an index for this file and
embedding it into the executable, so that the functions in `doc.c' do
not have to search the entire `DOC' file to find the appropriate
documentation string.)

     md5.c

   This function provides a Lisp primitive that implements the MD5
secure hashing scheme, used to create a large hash value of a string of
data such that the data cannot be derived from the hash value.  This is
used for various security applications on the Internet.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for Interfacing with the Operating System,  Next: Modules for Interfacing with X Windows,  Prev: Modules for Other Aspects of the Lisp Interpreter and Object System,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for Interfacing with the Operating System
=================================================

     callproc.c
     process.c
     process.h

   These modules allow XEmacs to spawn and communicate with subprocesses
and network connections.

   `callproc.c' implements (through the `call-process' primitive) what
are called "synchronous subprocesses".  This means that XEmacs runs a
program, waits till it's done, and retrieves its output.  A typical
example might be calling the `ls' program to get a directory listing.

   `process.c' and `process.h' implement "asynchronous subprocesses".
This means that XEmacs starts a program and then continues normally,
not waiting for the process to finish.  Data can be sent to the process
or retrieved from it as it's running.  This is used for the `shell'
command (which provides a front end onto a shell program such as
`csh'), the mail and news readers implemented in XEmacs, etc.  The
result of calling `start-process' to start a subprocess is a process
object, a particular kind of object used to communicate with the
subprocess.  You can send data to the process by passing the process
object and the data to `send-process', and you can specify what happens
to data retrieved from the process by setting properties of the process
object. (When the process sends data, XEmacs receives a process event,
which says that there is data ready.  When `dispatch-event' is called
on this event, it reads the data from the process and does something
with it, as specified by the process object's properties.  Typically,
this means inserting the data into a buffer or calling a function.)
Another property of the process object is called the "sentinel", which
is a function that is called when the process terminates.

   Process objects are also used for network connections (connections
to a process running on another machine).  Network connections are
started with `open-network-stream' but otherwise work just like
subprocesses.

     sysdep.c
     sysdep.h

   These modules implement most of the low-level, messy operating-system
interface code.  This includes various device control (ioctl) operations
for file descriptors, TTY's, pseudo-terminals, etc. (usually this stuff
is fairly system-dependent; thus the name of this module), and emulation
of standard library functions and system calls on systems that don't
provide them or have broken versions.

     sysdir.h
     sysfile.h
     sysfloat.h
     sysproc.h
     syspwd.h
     syssignal.h
     systime.h
     systty.h
     syswait.h

   These header files provide consistent interfaces onto
system-dependent header files and system calls.  The idea is that,
instead of including a standard header file like `<sys/param.h>' (which
may or may not exist on various systems) or having to worry about
whether all system provide a particular preprocessor constant, or
having to deal with the four different paradigms for manipulating
signals, you just include the appropriate `sys*.h' header file, which
includes all the right system header files, defines and missing
preprocessor constants, provides a uniform interface onto system calls,
etc.

   `sysdir.h' provides a uniform interface onto directory-querying
functions. (In some cases, this is in conjunction with emulation
functions in `sysdep.c'.)

   `sysfile.h' includes all the necessary header files for standard
system calls (e.g. `read()'), ensures that all necessary `open()' and
`stat()' preprocessor constants are defined, and possibly (usually)
substitutes sugared versions of `read()', `write()', etc. that
automatically restart interrupted I/O operations.

   `sysfloat.h' includes the necessary header files for floating-point
operations.

   `sysproc.h' includes the necessary header files for calling
`select()', `fork()', `execve()', socket operations, and the like, and
ensures that the `FD_*()' macros for descriptor-set manipulations are
available.

   `syspwd.h' includes the necessary header files for obtaining
information from `/etc/passwd' (the functions are emulated under VMS).

   `syssignal.h' includes the necessary header files for
signal-handling and provides a uniform interface onto the different
signal-handling and signal-blocking paradigms.

   `systime.h' includes the necessary header files and provides uniform
interfaces for retrieving the time of day, setting file
access/modification times, getting the amount of time used by the XEmacs
process, etc.

   `systty.h' buffers against the infinitude of different ways of
controlling TTY's.

   `syswait.h' provides a uniform way of retrieving the exit status
from a `wait()'ed-on process (some systems use a union, others use an
int).

     hpplay.c
     libsst.c
     libsst.h
     libst.h
     linuxplay.c
     nas.c
     sgiplay.c
     sound.c
     sunplay.c

   These files implement the ability to play various sounds on some
types of computers.  You have to configure your XEmacs with sound
support in order to get this capability.

   `sound.c' provides the generic interface.  It implements various
Lisp primitives and variables that let you specify which sounds should
be played in certain conditions. (The conditions are identified by
symbols, which are passed to `ding' to make a sound.  Various standard
functions call this function at certain times; if sound support does
not exist, a simple beep results.

   `sgiplay.c', `sunplay.c', `hpplay.c', and `linuxplay.c' interface to
the machine's speaker for various different kind of machines.  This is
called "native" sound.

   `nas.c' interfaces to a computer somewhere else on the network using
the NAS (Network Audio Server) protocol, playing sounds on that
machine.  This allows you to run XEmacs on a remote machine, with its
display set to your local machine, and have the sounds be made on your
local machine, provided that you have a NAS server running on your local
machine.

   `libsst.c', `libsst.h', and `libst.h' provide some additional
functions for playing sound on a Sun SPARC but are not currently in use.

     tooltalk.c
     tooltalk.h

   These two modules implement an interface to the ToolTalk protocol,
which is an interprocess communication protocol implemented on some
versions of Unix.  ToolTalk is a high-level protocol that allows
processes to register themselves as providers of particular services;
other processes can then request a service without knowing or caring
exactly who is providing the service.  It is similar in spirit to the
DDE protocol provided under Microsoft Windows.  ToolTalk is a part of
the new CDE (Common Desktop Environment) specification and is used to
connect the parts of the SPARCWorks development environment.

     getloadavg.c

   This module provides the ability to retrieve the system's current
load average. (The way to do this is highly system-specific,
unfortunately, and requires a lot of special-case code.)

     sunpro.c

   This module provides a small amount of code used internally at Sun to
keep statistics on the usage of XEmacs.

     broken-sun.h
     strcmp.c
     strcpy.c
     sunOS-fix.c

   These files provide replacement functions and prototypes to fix
numerous bugs in early releases of SunOS 4.1.

     hftctl.c

   This module provides some terminal-control code necessary on
versions of AIX prior to 4.1.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for Interfacing with X Windows,  Next: Modules for Internationalization,  Prev: Modules for Interfacing with the Operating System,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for Interfacing with X Windows
======================================

     Emacs.ad.h

   A file generated from `Emacs.ad', which contains XEmacs-supplied
fallback resources (so that XEmacs has pretty defaults).

     EmacsFrame.c
     EmacsFrame.h
     EmacsFrameP.h

   These modules implement an Xt widget class that encapsulates a frame.
This is for ease in integrating with Xt.  The EmacsFrame widget covers
the entire X window except for the menubar; the scrollbars are
positioned on top of the EmacsFrame widget.

   *Warning:* Abandon hope, all ye who enter here.  This code took an
ungodly amount of time to get right, and is likely to fall apart
mercilessly at the slightest change.  Such is life under Xt.

     EmacsManager.c
     EmacsManager.h
     EmacsManagerP.h

   These modules implement a simple Xt manager (i.e. composite) widget
class that simply lets its children set whatever geometry they want.
It's amazing that Xt doesn't provide this standardly, but on second
thought, it makes sense, considering how amazingly broken Xt is.

     EmacsShell-sub.c
     EmacsShell.c
     EmacsShell.h
     EmacsShellP.h

   These modules implement two Xt widget classes that are subclasses of
the TopLevelShell and TransientShell classes.  This is necessary to deal
with more brokenness that Xt has sadistically thrust onto the backs of
developers.

     xgccache.c
     xgccache.h

   These modules provide functions for maintenance and caching of GC's
(graphics contexts) under the X Window System.  This code is junky and
needs to be rewritten.

     select-msw.c
     select-x.c
     select.c
     select.h

   This module provides an interface to the X Window System's concept of
"selections", the standard way for X applications to communicate with
each other.

     xintrinsic.h
     xintrinsicp.h
     xmmanagerp.h
     xmprimitivep.h

   These header files are similar in spirit to the `sys*.h' files and
buffer against different implementations of Xt and Motif.

   * `xintrinsic.h' should be included in place of `<Intrinsic.h>'.

   * `xintrinsicp.h' should be included in place of `<IntrinsicP.h>'.

   * `xmmanagerp.h' should be included in place of `<XmManagerP.h>'.

   * `xmprimitivep.h' should be included in place of `<XmPrimitiveP.h>'.

     xmu.c
     xmu.h

   These files provide an emulation of the Xmu library for those systems
(i.e. HPUX) that don't provide it as a standard part of X.

     ExternalClient-Xlib.c
     ExternalClient.c
     ExternalClient.h
     ExternalClientP.h
     ExternalShell.c
     ExternalShell.h
     ExternalShellP.h
     extw-Xlib.c
     extw-Xlib.h
     extw-Xt.c
     extw-Xt.h

   These files provide the "external widget" interface, which allows an
XEmacs frame to appear as a widget in another application.  To do this,
you have to configure with `--external-widget'.

   `ExternalShell*' provides the server (XEmacs) side of the connection.

   `ExternalClient*' provides the client (other application) side of
the connection.  These files are not compiled into XEmacs but are
compiled into libraries that are then linked into your application.

   `extw-*' is common code that is used for both the client and server.

   Don't touch this code; something is liable to break if you do.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Modules for Internationalization,  Prev: Modules for Interfacing with X Windows,  Up: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules

Modules for Internationalization
================================

     mule-canna.c
     mule-ccl.c
     mule-charset.c
     mule-charset.h
     file-coding.c
     file-coding.h
     mule-mcpath.c
     mule-mcpath.h
     mule-wnnfns.c
     mule.c

   These files implement the MULE (Asian-language) support.  Note that
MULE actually provides a general interface for all sorts of languages,
not just Asian languages (although they are generally the most
complicated to support).  This code is still in beta.

   `mule-charset.*' and `file-coding.*' provide the heart of the XEmacs
MULE support.  `mule-charset.*' implements the "charset" Lisp object
type, which encapsulates a character set (an ordered one- or
two-dimensional set of characters, such as US ASCII or JISX0208 Japanese
Kanji).

   `file-coding.*' implements the "coding-system" Lisp object type,
which encapsulates a method of converting between different encodings.
An encoding is a representation of a stream of characters, possibly
from multiple character sets, using a stream of bytes or words, and
defines (e.g.) which escape sequences are used to specify particular
character sets, how the indices for a character are converted into bytes
(sometimes this involves setting the high bit; sometimes complicated
rearranging of the values takes place, as in the Shift-JIS encoding),
etc.

   `mule-ccl.c' provides the CCL (Code Conversion Language)
interpreter.  CCL is similar in spirit to Lisp byte code and is used to
implement converters for custom encodings.

   `mule-canna.c' and `mule-wnnfns.c' implement interfaces to external
programs used to implement the Canna and WNN input methods,
respectively.  This is currently in beta.

   `mule-mcpath.c' provides some functions to allow for pathnames
containing extended characters.  This code is fragmentary, obsolete, and
completely non-working.  Instead, PATHNAME-CODING-SYSTEM is used to
specify conversions of names of files and directories.  The standard C
I/O functions like `open()' are wrapped so that conversion occurs
automatically.

   `mule.c' provides a few miscellaneous things that should probably be
elsewhere.

     intl.c

   This provides some miscellaneous internationalization code for
implementing message translation and interfacing to the Ximp input
method.  None of this code is currently working.

     iso-wide.h

   This contains leftover code from an earlier implementation of
Asian-language support, and is not currently used.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp,  Next: Dumping,  Prev: A Summary of the Various XEmacs Modules,  Up: Top

Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp
************************************

* Menu:

* Introduction to Allocation::
* Garbage Collection::
* GCPROing::
* Garbage Collection - Step by Step::
* Integers and Characters::
* Allocation from Frob Blocks::
* lrecords::
* Low-level allocation::
* Cons::
* Vector::
* Bit Vector::
* Symbol::
* Marker::
* String::
* Compiled Function::

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Introduction to Allocation,  Next: Garbage Collection,  Up: Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp

Introduction to Allocation
==========================

   Emacs Lisp, like all Lisps, has garbage collection.  This means that
the programmer never has to explicitly free (destroy) an object; it
happens automatically when the object becomes inaccessible.  Most
experts agree that garbage collection is a necessity in a modern,
high-level language.  Its omission from C stems from the fact that C was
originally designed to be a nice abstract layer on top of assembly
language, for writing kernels and basic system utilities rather than
large applications.

   Lisp objects can be created by any of a number of Lisp primitives.
Most object types have one or a small number of basic primitives for
creating objects.  For conses, the basic primitive is `cons'; for
vectors, the primitives are `make-vector' and `vector'; for symbols,
the primitives are `make-symbol' and `intern'; etc.  Some Lisp objects,
especially those that are primarily used internally, have no
corresponding Lisp primitives.  Every Lisp object, though, has at least
one C primitive for creating it.

   Recall from section (VII) that a Lisp object, as stored in a 32-bit
or 64-bit word, has a few tag bits, and a "value" that occupies the
remainder of the bits.  We can separate the different Lisp object types
into three broad categories:

   * (a) Those for whom the value directly represents the contents of
     the Lisp object.  Only two types are in this category: integers and
     characters.  No special allocation or garbage collection is
     necessary for such objects.  Lisp objects of these types do not
     need to be `GCPRO'ed.

   In the remaining two categories, the type is stored in the object
itself.  The tag for all such objects is the generic "lrecord"
(Lisp_Type_Record) tag.  The first bytes of the object's structure are
an integer (actually a char) characterising the object's type and some
flags, in particular the mark bit used for garbage collection.  A
structure describing the type is accessible thru the
lrecord_implementation_table indexed with said integer.  This structure
includes the method pointers and a pointer to a string naming the type.

   * (b) Those lrecords that are allocated in frob blocks (see above).
     This includes the objects that are most common and relatively
     small, and includes conses, strings, subrs, floats, compiled
     functions, symbols, extents, events, and markers.  With the
     cleanup of frob blocks done in 19.12, it's not terribly hard to
     add more objects to this category, but it's a bit trickier than
     adding an object type to type (c) (esp. if the object needs a
     finalization method), and is not likely to save much space unless
     the object is small and there are many of them. (In fact, if there
     are very few of them, it might actually waste space.)

   * (c) Those lrecords that are individually `malloc()'ed.  These are
     called "lcrecords".  All other types are in this category.  Adding
     a new type to this category is comparatively easy, and all types
     added since 19.8 (when the current allocation scheme was devised,
     by Richard Mlynarik), with the exception of the character type,
     have been in this category.

   Note that bit vectors are a bit of a special case.  They are simple
lrecords as in category (b), but are individually `malloc()'ed like
vectors.  You can basically view them as exactly like vectors except
that their type is stored in lrecord fashion rather than in
directly-tagged fashion.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Garbage Collection,  Next: GCPROing,  Prev: Introduction to Allocation,  Up: Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp

Garbage Collection
==================

   Garbage collection is simple in theory but tricky to implement.
Emacs Lisp uses the oldest garbage collection method, called "mark and
sweep".  Garbage collection begins by starting with all accessible
locations (i.e. all variables and other slots where Lisp objects might
occur) and recursively traversing all objects accessible from those
slots, marking each one that is found.  We then go through all of
memory and free each object that is not marked, and unmarking each
object that is marked.  Note that "all of memory" means all currently
allocated objects.  Traversing all these objects means traversing all
frob blocks, all vectors (which are chained in one big list), and all
lcrecords (which are likewise chained).

   Garbage collection can be invoked explicitly by calling
`garbage-collect' but is also called automatically by `eval', once a
certain amount of memory has been allocated since the last garbage
collection (according to `gc-cons-threshold').

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: GCPROing,  Next: Garbage Collection - Step by Step,  Prev: Garbage Collection,  Up: Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp

`GCPRO'ing
==========

   `GCPRO'ing is one of the ugliest and trickiest parts of Emacs
internals.  The basic idea is that whenever garbage collection occurs,
all in-use objects must be reachable somehow or other from one of the
roots of accessibility.  The roots of accessibility are:

  1. All objects that have been `staticpro()'d or
     `staticpro_nodump()'ed.  This is used for any global C variables
     that hold Lisp objects.  A call to `staticpro()' happens implicitly
     as a result of any symbols declared with `defsymbol()' and any
     variables declared with `DEFVAR_FOO()'.  You need to explicitly
     call `staticpro()' (in the `vars_of_foo()' method of a module) for
     other global C variables holding Lisp objects. (This typically
     includes internal lists and such things.).  Use
     `staticpro_nodump()' only in the rare cases when you do not want
     the pointed variable to be saved at dump time but rather recompute
     it at startup.

     Note that `obarray' is one of the `staticpro()'d things.
     Therefore, all functions and variables get marked through this.

  2. Any shadowed bindings that are sitting on the `specpdl' stack.

  3. Any objects sitting in currently active (Lisp) stack frames,
     catches, and condition cases.

  4. A couple of special-case places where active objects are located.

  5. Anything currently marked with `GCPRO'.

   Marking with `GCPRO' is necessary because some C functions (quite a
lot, in fact), allocate objects during their operation.  Quite
frequently, there will be no other pointer to the object while the
function is running, and if a garbage collection occurs and the object
needs to be referenced again, bad things will happen.  The solution is
to mark those objects with `GCPRO'.  Unfortunately this is easy to
forget, and there is basically no way around this problem.  Here are
some rules, though:

  1. For every `GCPRON', there have to be declarations of `struct gcpro
     gcpro1, gcpro2', etc.

  2. You _must_ `UNGCPRO' anything that's `GCPRO'ed, and you _must not_
     `UNGCPRO' if you haven't `GCPRO'ed.  Getting either of these wrong
     will lead to crashes, often in completely random places unrelated
     to where the problem lies.

  3. The way this actually works is that all currently active `GCPRO's
     are chained through the `struct gcpro' local variables, with the
     variable `gcprolist' pointing to the head of the list and the nth
     local `gcpro' variable pointing to the first `gcpro' variable in
     the next enclosing stack frame.  Each `GCPRO'ed thing is an
     lvalue, and the `struct gcpro' local variable contains a pointer to
     this lvalue.  This is why things will mess up badly if you don't
     pair up the `GCPRO's and `UNGCPRO's--you will end up with
     `gcprolist's containing pointers to `struct gcpro's or local
     `Lisp_Object' variables in no-longer-active stack frames.

  4. It is actually possible for a single `struct gcpro' to protect a
     contiguous array of any number of values, rather than just a
     single lvalue.  To effect this, call `GCPRON' as usual on the
     first object in the array and then set `gcproN.nvars'.

  5. *Strings are relocated.*  What this means in practice is that the
     pointer obtained using `XSTRING_DATA()' is liable to change at any
     time, and you should never keep it around past any function call,
     or pass it as an argument to any function that might cause a
     garbage collection.  This is why a number of functions accept
     either a "non-relocatable" `char *' pointer or a relocatable Lisp
     string, and only access the Lisp string's data at the very last
     minute.  In some cases, you may end up having to `alloca()' some
     space and copy the string's data into it.

  6. By convention, if you have to nest `GCPRO''s, use `NGCPRON' (along
     with `struct gcpro ngcpro1, ngcpro2', etc.), `NNGCPRON', etc.
     This avoids compiler warnings about shadowed locals.

  7. It is _always_ better to err on the side of extra `GCPRO's rather
     than too few.  The extra cycles spent on this are almost never
     going to make a whit of difference in the speed of anything.

  8. The general rule to follow is that caller, not callee, `GCPRO's.
     That is, you should not have to explicitly `GCPRO' any Lisp objects
     that are passed in as parameters.

     One exception from this rule is if you ever plan to change the
     parameter value, and store a new object in it.  In that case, you
     _must_ `GCPRO' the parameter, because otherwise the new object
     will not be protected.

     So, if you create any Lisp objects (remember, this happens in all
     sorts of circumstances, e.g. with `Fcons()', etc.), you are
     responsible for `GCPRO'ing them, unless you are _absolutely sure_
     that there's no possibility that a garbage-collection can occur
     while you need to use the object.  Even then, consider `GCPRO'ing.

  9. A garbage collection can occur whenever anything calls `Feval', or
     whenever a QUIT can occur where execution can continue past this.
     (Remember, this is almost anywhere.)

 10. If you have the _least smidgeon of doubt_ about whether you need
     to `GCPRO', you should `GCPRO'.

 11. Beware of `GCPRO'ing something that is uninitialized.  If you have
     any shade of doubt about this, initialize all your variables to
     `Qnil'.

 12. Be careful of traps, like calling `Fcons()' in the argument to
     another function.  By the "caller protects" law, you should be
     `GCPRO'ing the newly-created cons, but you aren't.  A certain
     number of functions that are commonly called on freshly created
     stuff (e.g. `nconc2()', `Fsignal()'), break the "caller protects"
     law and go ahead and `GCPRO' their arguments so as to simplify
     things, but make sure and check if it's OK whenever doing
     something like this.

 13. Once again, remember to `GCPRO'!  Bugs resulting from insufficient
     `GCPRO'ing are intermittent and extremely difficult to track down,
     often showing up in crashes inside of `garbage-collect' or in
     weirdly corrupted objects or even in incorrect values in a totally
     different section of code.

   Given the extremely error-prone nature of the `GCPRO' scheme, and
the difficulties in tracking down, it should be considered a deficiency
in the XEmacs code.  A solution to this problem would involve
implementing so-called "conservative" garbage collection for the C
stack.  That involves looking through all of stack memory and treating
anything that looks like a reference to an object as a reference.  This
will result in a few objects not getting collected when they should, but
it obviates the need for `GCPRO'ing, and allows garbage collection to
happen at any point at all, such as during object allocation.

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Garbage Collection - Step by Step,  Next: Integers and Characters,  Prev: GCPROing,  Up: Allocation of Objects in XEmacs Lisp

Garbage Collection - Step by Step
=================================

* Menu:

* Invocation::
* garbage_collect_1::
* mark_object::
* gc_sweep::
* sweep_lcrecords_1::
* compact_string_chars::
* sweep_strings::
* sweep_bit_vectors_1::

\1f
File: internals.info,  Node: Invocation,  Next: garbage_collect_1,  Up: Garbage Collection - Step by Step

Invocation
----------

   The first thing that anyone should know about garbage collection is:
when and how the garbage collector is invoked. One might think that this
could happen every time new memory is allocated, e.g. new objects are
created, but this is _not_ the case. Instead, we have the following
situation:

   The entry point of any process of garbage collection is an invocation
of the function `garbage_collect_1' in file `alloc.c'. The invocation
can occur _explicitly_ by calling the function `Fgarbage_collect' (in
addition this function provides information about the freed memory), or
can occur _implicitly_ in four different situations:
  1. In function `main_1' in file `emacs.c'. This function is called at
     each startup of xemacs. The garbage collection is invoked after all
     initial creations are completed, but only if a special internal
     error checking-constant `ERROR_CHECK_GC' is defined.

  2. In function `disksave_object_finalization' in file `alloc.c'. The
     only purpose of this function is to clear the objects from memory
     which need not be stored with xemacs when we dump out an
     executable. This is only done by `Fdump_emacs' or by
     `Fdump_emacs_data' respectively (both in `emacs.c'). The actual
     clearing is accomplished by making these objects unreachable and
     starting a garbage collection. The function is only used while
     building xemacs.

  3. In function `Feval / eval' in file `eval.c'. Each time the well
     known and often used function eval is called to evaluate a form,
     one of the first things that could happen, is a potential call of
     `garbage_collect_1'. There exist three global variables,
     `consing_since_gc' (counts the created cons-cells since the last
     garbage collection), `gc_cons_threshold' (a specified threshold
     after which a garbage collection occurs) and `always_gc'. If
     `always_gc' is set or if the threshold is exceeded, the garbage
     collection will start.

  4. In function `Ffuncall / funcall' in file `eval.c'. This function
     evaluates calls of elisp functions and works according to `Feval'.

   The upshot is that garbage collection can basically occur everywhere
`Feval', respectively `Ffuncall', is used - either directly or through
another function. Since calls to these two functions are hidden in
various other functions, many calls to `garbage_collect_1' are not
obviously foreseeable, and therefore unexpected. Instances where they
are used that are worth remembering are various elisp commands, as for
example `or', `and', `if', `cond', `while', `setq', etc., miscellaneous
`gui_item_...' functions, everything related to `eval' (`Feval_buffer',
`call0', ...) and inside `Fsignal'. The latter is used to handle
signals, as for example the ones raised by every `QUIT'-macro triggered
after pressing Ctrl-g.