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INFO-DIR-SECTION XEmacs Editor
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Lispref: (lispref).           XEmacs Lisp Reference Manual.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   Edition History:

   GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual Second Edition (v2.01), May 1993 GNU
Emacs Lisp Reference Manual Further Revised (v2.02), August 1993 Lucid
Emacs Lisp Reference Manual (for 19.10) First Edition, March 1994
XEmacs Lisp Programmer's Manual (for 19.12) Second Edition, April 1995
GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual v2.4, June 1995 XEmacs Lisp
Programmer's Manual (for 19.13) Third Edition, July 1995 XEmacs Lisp
Reference Manual (for 19.14 and 20.0) v3.1, March 1996 XEmacs Lisp
Reference Manual (for 19.15 and 20.1, 20.2, 20.3) v3.2, April, May,
November 1997 XEmacs Lisp Reference Manual (for 21.0) v3.3, April 1998

   Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Free Software
Foundation, Inc.  Copyright (C) 1994, 1995 Sun Microsystems, Inc.
Copyright (C) 1995, 1996 Ben Wing.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a
translation approved by the Foundation.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
Foundation instead of in the original English.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Variable Aliases,  Prev: Buffer-Local Variables,  Up: Variables

Variable Aliases
================

   You can define a variable as an "alias" for another.  Any time you
reference the former variable, the current value of the latter is
returned.  Any time you change the value of the former variable, the
value of the latter is actually changed.  This is useful in cases where
you want to rename a variable but still make old code work (*note
Obsoleteness::.).

 - Function: defvaralias VARIABLE ALIAS
     This function defines VARIABLE as an alias for ALIAS.
     Thenceforth, any operations performed on VARIABLE will actually be
     performed on ALIAS.  Both VARIABLE and ALIAS should be symbols.
     If ALIAS is `nil', remove any aliases for VARIABLE.  ALIAS can
     itself be aliased, and the chain of variable aliases will be
     followed appropriately.  If VARIABLE already has a value, this
     value will be shadowed until the alias is removed, at which point
     it will be restored.  Currently VARIABLE cannot be a built-in
     variable, a variable that has a buffer-local value in any buffer,
     or the symbols `nil' or `t'.

 - Function: variable-alias VARIABLE
     If VARIABLE is aliased to another variable, this function returns
     that variable.  VARIABLE should be a symbol.  If VARIABLE is not
     aliased, this function returns `nil'.

 - Function: indirect-variable OBJECT
     This function returns the variable at the end of OBJECT's
     variable-alias chain.  If OBJECT is a symbol, follow all variable
     aliases and return the final (non-aliased) symbol.  If OBJECT is
     not a symbol, just return it.  Signal a
     `cyclic-variable-indirection' error if there is a loop in the
     variable chain of symbols.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Functions,  Next: Macros,  Prev: Variables,  Up: Top

Functions
*********

   A Lisp program is composed mainly of Lisp functions.  This chapter
explains what functions are, how they accept arguments, and how to
define them.

* Menu:

* What Is a Function::    Lisp functions vs. primitives; terminology.
* Lambda Expressions::    How functions are expressed as Lisp objects.
* Function Names::        A symbol can serve as the name of a function.
* Defining Functions::    Lisp expressions for defining functions.
* Calling Functions::     How to use an existing function.
* Mapping Functions::     Applying a function to each element of a list, etc.
* Anonymous Functions::   Lambda expressions are functions with no names.
* Function Cells::        Accessing or setting the function definition
                            of a symbol.
* Inline Functions::      Defining functions that the compiler will open code.
* Related Topics::        Cross-references to specific Lisp primitives
                            that have a special bearing on how functions work.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: What Is a Function,  Next: Lambda Expressions,  Up: Functions

What Is a Function?
===================

   In a general sense, a function is a rule for carrying on a
computation given several values called "arguments".  The result of the
computation is called the value of the function.  The computation can
also have side effects: lasting changes in the values of variables or
the contents of data structures.

   Here are important terms for functions in XEmacs Lisp and for other
function-like objects.

"function"
     In XEmacs Lisp, a "function" is anything that can be applied to
     arguments in a Lisp program.  In some cases, we use it more
     specifically to mean a function written in Lisp.  Special forms and
     macros are not functions.

"primitive"
     A "primitive" is a function callable from Lisp that is written in
     C, such as `car' or `append'.  These functions are also called
     "built-in" functions or "subrs".  (Special forms are also
     considered primitives.)

     Usually the reason that a function is a primitives is because it is
     fundamental, because it provides a low-level interface to operating
     system services, or because it needs to run fast.  Primitives can
     be modified or added only by changing the C sources and
     recompiling the editor.  See *Note Writing Lisp Primitives:
     (internals)Writing Lisp Primitives.

"lambda expression"
     A "lambda expression" is a function written in Lisp.  These are
     described in the following section.  *Note Lambda Expressions::.

"special form"
     A "special form" is a primitive that is like a function but does
     not evaluate all of its arguments in the usual way.  It may
     evaluate only some of the arguments, or may evaluate them in an
     unusual order, or several times.  Many special forms are described
     in *Note Control Structures::.

"macro"
     A "macro" is a construct defined in Lisp by the programmer.  It
     differs from a function in that it translates a Lisp expression
     that you write into an equivalent expression to be evaluated
     instead of the original expression.  Macros enable Lisp
     programmers to do the sorts of things that special forms can do.
     *Note Macros::, for how to define and use macros.

"command"
     A "command" is an object that `command-execute' can invoke; it is
     a possible definition for a key sequence.  Some functions are
     commands; a function written in Lisp is a command if it contains an
     interactive declaration (*note Defining Commands::.).  Such a
     function can be called from Lisp expressions like other functions;
     in this case, the fact that the function is a command makes no
     difference.

     Keyboard macros (strings and vectors) are commands also, even
     though they are not functions.  A symbol is a command if its
     function definition is a command; such symbols can be invoked with
     `M-x'.  The symbol is a function as well if the definition is a
     function.  *Note Command Overview::.

"keystroke command"
     A "keystroke command" is a command that is bound to a key sequence
     (typically one to three keystrokes).  The distinction is made here
     merely to avoid confusion with the meaning of "command" in
     non-Emacs editors; for Lisp programs, the distinction is normally
     unimportant.

"compiled function"
     A "compiled function" is a function that has been compiled by the
     byte compiler.  *Note Compiled-Function Type::.

 - Function: subrp OBJECT
     This function returns `t' if OBJECT is a built-in function (i.e.,
     a Lisp primitive).

          (subrp 'message)            ; `message' is a symbol,
               => nil                 ;   not a subr object.
          (subrp (symbol-function 'message))
               => t

 - Function: compiled-function-p OBJECT
     This function returns `t' if OBJECT is a compiled function.  For
     example:

          (compiled-function-p (symbol-function 'next-line))
               => t

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Lambda Expressions,  Next: Function Names,  Prev: What Is a Function,  Up: Functions

Lambda Expressions
==================

   A function written in Lisp is a list that looks like this:

     (lambda (ARG-VARIABLES...)
       [DOCUMENTATION-STRING]
       [INTERACTIVE-DECLARATION]
       BODY-FORMS...)

Such a list is called a "lambda expression".  In XEmacs Lisp, it
actually is valid as an expression--it evaluates to itself.  In some
other Lisp dialects, a lambda expression is not a valid expression at
all.  In either case, its main use is not to be evaluated as an
expression, but to be called as a function.

* Menu:

* Lambda Components::       The parts of a lambda expression.
* Simple Lambda::           A simple example.
* Argument List::           Details and special features of argument lists.
* Function Documentation::  How to put documentation in a function.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Lambda Components,  Next: Simple Lambda,  Up: Lambda Expressions

Components of a Lambda Expression
---------------------------------

   A function written in Lisp (a "lambda expression") is a list that
looks like this:

     (lambda (ARG-VARIABLES...)
       [DOCUMENTATION-STRING]
       [INTERACTIVE-DECLARATION]
       BODY-FORMS...)

   The first element of a lambda expression is always the symbol
`lambda'.  This indicates that the list represents a function.  The
reason functions are defined to start with `lambda' is so that other
lists, intended for other uses, will not accidentally be valid as
functions.

   The second element is a list of symbols-the argument variable names.
This is called the "lambda list".  When a Lisp function is called, the
argument values are matched up against the variables in the lambda
list, which are given local bindings with the values provided.  *Note
Local Variables::.

   The documentation string is a Lisp string object placed within the
function definition to describe the function for the XEmacs help
facilities.  *Note Function Documentation::.

   The interactive declaration is a list of the form `(interactive
CODE-STRING)'.  This declares how to provide arguments if the function
is used interactively.  Functions with this declaration are called
"commands"; they can be called using `M-x' or bound to a key.
Functions not intended to be called in this way should not have
interactive declarations.  *Note Defining Commands::, for how to write
an interactive declaration.

   The rest of the elements are the "body" of the function: the Lisp
code to do the work of the function (or, as a Lisp programmer would say,
"a list of Lisp forms to evaluate").  The value returned by the
function is the value returned by the last element of the body.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Simple Lambda,  Next: Argument List,  Prev: Lambda Components,  Up: Lambda Expressions

A Simple Lambda-Expression Example
----------------------------------

   Consider for example the following function:

     (lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))

We can call this function by writing it as the CAR of an expression,
like this:

     ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
      1 2 3)

This call evaluates the body of the lambda expression  with the variable
`a' bound to 1, `b' bound to 2, and `c' bound to 3.  Evaluation of the
body adds these three numbers, producing the result 6; therefore, this
call to the function returns the value 6.

   Note that the arguments can be the results of other function calls,
as in this example:

     ((lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))
      1 (* 2 3) (- 5 4))

This evaluates the arguments `1', `(* 2 3)', and `(- 5 4)' from left to
right.  Then it applies the lambda expression to the argument values 1,
6 and 1 to produce the value 8.

   It is not often useful to write a lambda expression as the CAR of a
form in this way.  You can get the same result, of making local
variables and giving them values, using the special form `let' (*note
Local Variables::.).  And `let' is clearer and easier to use.  In
practice, lambda expressions are either stored as the function
definitions of symbols, to produce named functions, or passed as
arguments to other functions (*note Anonymous Functions::.).

   However, calls to explicit lambda expressions were very useful in the
old days of Lisp, before the special form `let' was invented.  At that
time, they were the only way to bind and initialize local variables.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Argument List,  Next: Function Documentation,  Prev: Simple Lambda,  Up: Lambda Expressions

Advanced Features of Argument Lists
-----------------------------------

   Our simple sample function, `(lambda (a b c) (+ a b c))', specifies
three argument variables, so it must be called with three arguments: if
you try to call it with only two arguments or four arguments, you get a
`wrong-number-of-arguments' error.

   It is often convenient to write a function that allows certain
arguments to be omitted.  For example, the function `substring' accepts
three arguments--a string, the start index and the end index--but the
third argument defaults to the LENGTH of the string if you omit it.  It
is also convenient for certain functions to accept an indefinite number
of arguments, as the functions `list' and `+' do.

   To specify optional arguments that may be omitted when a function is
called, simply include the keyword `&optional' before the optional
arguments.  To specify a list of zero or more extra arguments, include
the keyword `&rest' before one final argument.

   Thus, the complete syntax for an argument list is as follows:

     (REQUIRED-VARS...
      [&optional OPTIONAL-VARS...]
      [&rest REST-VAR])

The square brackets indicate that the `&optional' and `&rest' clauses,
and the variables that follow them, are optional.

   A call to the function requires one actual argument for each of the
REQUIRED-VARS.  There may be actual arguments for zero or more of the
OPTIONAL-VARS, and there cannot be any actual arguments beyond that
unless the lambda list uses `&rest'.  In that case, there may be any
number of extra actual arguments.

   If actual arguments for the optional and rest variables are omitted,
then they always default to `nil'.  There is no way for the function to
distinguish between an explicit argument of `nil' and an omitted
argument.  However, the body of the function is free to consider `nil'
an abbreviation for some other meaningful value.  This is what
`substring' does; `nil' as the third argument to `substring' means to
use the length of the string supplied.

     Common Lisp note: Common Lisp allows the function to specify what
     default value to use when an optional argument is omitted; XEmacs
     Lisp always uses `nil'.

   For example, an argument list that looks like this:

     (a b &optional c d &rest e)

binds `a' and `b' to the first two actual arguments, which are
required.  If one or two more arguments are provided, `c' and `d' are
bound to them respectively; any arguments after the first four are
collected into a list and `e' is bound to that list.  If there are only
two arguments, `c' is `nil'; if two or three arguments, `d' is `nil';
if four arguments or fewer, `e' is `nil'.

   There is no way to have required arguments following optional
ones--it would not make sense.  To see why this must be so, suppose
that `c' in the example were optional and `d' were required.  Suppose
three actual arguments are given; which variable would the third
argument be for?  Similarly, it makes no sense to have any more
arguments (either required or optional) after a `&rest' argument.

   Here are some examples of argument lists and proper calls:

     ((lambda (n) (1+ n))                ; One required:
      1)                                 ; requires exactly one argument.
          => 2
     ((lambda (n &optional n1)           ; One required and one optional:
              (if n1 (+ n n1) (1+ n)))   ; 1 or 2 arguments.
      1 2)
          => 3
     ((lambda (n &rest ns)               ; One required and one rest:
              (+ n (apply '+ ns)))       ; 1 or more arguments.
      1 2 3 4 5)
          => 15

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Function Documentation,  Prev: Argument List,  Up: Lambda Expressions

Documentation Strings of Functions
----------------------------------

   A lambda expression may optionally have a "documentation string" just
after the lambda list.  This string does not affect execution of the
function; it is a kind of comment, but a systematized comment which
actually appears inside the Lisp world and can be used by the XEmacs
help facilities.  *Note Documentation::, for how the
DOCUMENTATION-STRING is accessed.

   It is a good idea to provide documentation strings for all the
functions in your program, even those that are only called from within
your program.  Documentation strings are like comments, except that they
are easier to access.

   The first line of the documentation string should stand on its own,
because `apropos' displays just this first line.  It should consist of
one or two complete sentences that summarize the function's purpose.

   The start of the documentation string is usually indented in the
source file, but since these spaces come before the starting
double-quote, they are not part of the string.  Some people make a
practice of indenting any additional lines of the string so that the
text lines up in the program source.  *This is a mistake.*  The
indentation of the following lines is inside the string; what looks
nice in the source code will look ugly when displayed by the help
commands.

   You may wonder how the documentation string could be optional, since
there are required components of the function that follow it (the body).
Since evaluation of a string returns that string, without any side
effects, it has no effect if it is not the last form in the body.
Thus, in practice, there is no confusion between the first form of the
body and the documentation string; if the only body form is a string
then it serves both as the return value and as the documentation.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Function Names,  Next: Defining Functions,  Prev: Lambda Expressions,  Up: Functions

Naming a Function
=================

   In most computer languages, every function has a name; the idea of a
function without a name is nonsensical.  In Lisp, a function in the
strictest sense has no name.  It is simply a list whose first element is
`lambda', or a primitive subr-object.

   However, a symbol can serve as the name of a function.  This happens
when you put the function in the symbol's "function cell" (*note Symbol
Components::.).  Then the symbol itself becomes a valid, callable
function, equivalent to the list or subr-object that its function cell
refers to.  The contents of the function cell are also called the
symbol's "function definition".  The procedure of using a symbol's
function definition in place of the symbol is called "symbol function
indirection"; see *Note Function Indirection::.

   In practice, nearly all functions are given names in this way and
referred to through their names.  For example, the symbol `car' works
as a function and does what it does because the primitive subr-object
`#<subr car>' is stored in its function cell.

   We give functions names because it is convenient to refer to them by
their names in Lisp expressions.  For primitive subr-objects such as
`#<subr car>', names are the only way you can refer to them: there is
no read syntax for such objects.  For functions written in Lisp, the
name is more convenient to use in a call than an explicit lambda
expression.  Also, a function with a name can refer to itself--it can
be recursive.  Writing the function's name in its own definition is much
more convenient than making the function definition point to itself
(something that is not impossible but that has various disadvantages in
practice).

   We often identify functions with the symbols used to name them.  For
example, we often speak of "the function `car'", not distinguishing
between the symbol `car' and the primitive subr-object that is its
function definition.  For most purposes, there is no need to
distinguish.

   Even so, keep in mind that a function need not have a unique name.
While a given function object *usually* appears in the function cell of
only one symbol, this is just a matter of convenience.  It is easy to
store it in several symbols using `fset'; then each of the symbols is
equally well a name for the same function.

   A symbol used as a function name may also be used as a variable;
these two uses of a symbol are independent and do not conflict.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Defining Functions,  Next: Calling Functions,  Prev: Function Names,  Up: Functions

Defining Functions
==================

   We usually give a name to a function when it is first created.  This
is called "defining a function", and it is done with the `defun'
special form.

 - Special Form: defun NAME ARGUMENT-LIST BODY-FORMS
     `defun' is the usual way to define new Lisp functions.  It defines
     the symbol NAME as a function that looks like this:

          (lambda ARGUMENT-LIST . BODY-FORMS)

     `defun' stores this lambda expression in the function cell of
     NAME.  It returns the value NAME, but usually we ignore this value.

     As described previously (*note Lambda Expressions::.),
     ARGUMENT-LIST is a list of argument names and may include the
     keywords `&optional' and `&rest'.  Also, the first two forms in
     BODY-FORMS may be a documentation string and an interactive
     declaration.

     There is no conflict if the same symbol NAME is also used as a
     variable, since the symbol's value cell is independent of the
     function cell.  *Note Symbol Components::.

     Here are some examples:

          (defun foo () 5)
               => foo
          (foo)
               => 5
          
          (defun bar (a &optional b &rest c)
              (list a b c))
               => bar
          (bar 1 2 3 4 5)
               => (1 2 (3 4 5))
          (bar 1)
               => (1 nil nil)
          (bar)
          error--> Wrong number of arguments.
          
          (defun capitalize-backwards ()
            "Upcase the last letter of a word."
            (interactive)
            (backward-word 1)
            (forward-word 1)
            (backward-char 1)
            (capitalize-word 1))
               => capitalize-backwards

     Be careful not to redefine existing functions unintentionally.
     `defun' redefines even primitive functions such as `car' without
     any hesitation or notification.  Redefining a function already
     defined is often done deliberately, and there is no way to
     distinguish deliberate redefinition from unintentional
     redefinition.

 - Function: define-function NAME DEFINITION
 - Function: defalias NAME DEFINITION
     These equivalent special forms define the symbol NAME as a
     function, with definition DEFINITION (which can be any valid Lisp
     function).

     The proper place to use `define-function' or `defalias' is where a
     specific function name is being defined--especially where that
     name appears explicitly in the source file being loaded.  This is
     because `define-function' and `defalias' record which file defined
     the function, just like `defun'.  (*note Unloading::.).

     By contrast, in programs that manipulate function definitions for
     other purposes, it is better to use `fset', which does not keep
     such records.

   See also `defsubst', which defines a function like `defun' and tells
the Lisp compiler to open-code it.  *Note Inline Functions::.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Calling Functions,  Next: Mapping Functions,  Prev: Defining Functions,  Up: Functions

Calling Functions
=================

   Defining functions is only half the battle.  Functions don't do
anything until you "call" them, i.e., tell them to run.  Calling a
function is also known as "invocation".

   The most common way of invoking a function is by evaluating a list.
For example, evaluating the list `(concat "a" "b")' calls the function
`concat' with arguments `"a"' and `"b"'.  *Note Evaluation::, for a
description of evaluation.

   When you write a list as an expression in your program, the function
name is part of the program.  This means that you choose which function
to call, and how many arguments to give it, when you write the program.
Usually that's just what you want.  Occasionally you need to decide at
run time which function to call.  To do that, use the functions
`funcall' and `apply'.

 - Function: funcall FUNCTION &rest ARGUMENTS
     `funcall' calls FUNCTION with ARGUMENTS, and returns whatever
     FUNCTION returns.

     Since `funcall' is a function, all of its arguments, including
     FUNCTION, are evaluated before `funcall' is called.  This means
     that you can use any expression to obtain the function to be
     called.  It also means that `funcall' does not see the expressions
     you write for the ARGUMENTS, only their values.  These values are
     *not* evaluated a second time in the act of calling FUNCTION;
     `funcall' enters the normal procedure for calling a function at the
     place where the arguments have already been evaluated.

     The argument FUNCTION must be either a Lisp function or a
     primitive function.  Special forms and macros are not allowed,
     because they make sense only when given the "unevaluated" argument
     expressions.  `funcall' cannot provide these because, as we saw
     above, it never knows them in the first place.

          (setq f 'list)
               => list
          (funcall f 'x 'y 'z)
               => (x y z)
          (funcall f 'x 'y '(z))
               => (x y (z))
          (funcall 'and t nil)
          error--> Invalid function: #<subr and>

     Compare these example with the examples of `apply'.

 - Function: apply FUNCTION &rest ARGUMENTS
     `apply' calls FUNCTION with ARGUMENTS, just like `funcall' but
     with one difference: the last of ARGUMENTS is a list of arguments
     to give to FUNCTION, rather than a single argument.  We also say
     that `apply' "spreads" this list so that each individual element
     becomes an argument.

     `apply' returns the result of calling FUNCTION.  As with
     `funcall', FUNCTION must either be a Lisp function or a primitive
     function; special forms and macros do not make sense in `apply'.

          (setq f 'list)
               => list
          (apply f 'x 'y 'z)
          error--> Wrong type argument: listp, z
          (apply '+ 1 2 '(3 4))
               => 10
          (apply '+ '(1 2 3 4))
               => 10
          
          (apply 'append '((a b c) nil (x y z) nil))
               => (a b c x y z)

     For an interesting example of using `apply', see the description of
     `mapcar', in *Note Mapping Functions::.

   It is common for Lisp functions to accept functions as arguments or
find them in data structures (especially in hook variables and property
lists) and call them using `funcall' or `apply'.  Functions that accept
function arguments are often called "functionals".

   Sometimes, when you call a functional, it is useful to supply a no-op
function as the argument.  Here are two different kinds of no-op
function:

 - Function: identity ARG
     This function returns ARG and has no side effects.

 - Function: ignore &rest ARGS
     This function ignores any arguments and returns `nil'.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Mapping Functions,  Next: Anonymous Functions,  Prev: Calling Functions,  Up: Functions

Mapping Functions
=================

   A "mapping function" applies a given function to each element of a
list or other collection.  XEmacs Lisp has several such functions;
`mapcar' and `mapconcat', which scan a list, are described here.
*Note Creating Symbols::, for the function `mapatoms' which maps over
the symbols in an obarray.

   Mapping functions should never modify the sequence being mapped over.
The results are unpredictable.

 - Function: mapcar FUNCTION SEQUENCE
     `mapcar' applies FUNCTION to each element of SEQUENCE in turn, and
     returns a list of the results.

     The argument SEQUENCE can be any kind of sequence; that is, a
     list, a vector, a bit vector, or a string.  The result is always a
     list.  The length of the result is the same as the length of
     SEQUENCE.

     For example:

          (mapcar 'car '((a b) (c d) (e f)))
               => (a c e)
          (mapcar '1+ [1 2 3])
               => (2 3 4)
          (mapcar 'char-to-string "abc")
               => ("a" "b" "c")

          ;; Call each function in `my-hooks'.
          (mapcar 'funcall my-hooks)

          (defun mapcar* (f &rest args)
            "Apply FUNCTION to successive cars of all ARGS.
          Return the list of results."
            ;; If no list is exhausted,
            (if (not (memq 'nil args))
                ;; apply function to CARs.
                (cons (apply f (mapcar 'car args))
                      (apply 'mapcar* f
                             ;; Recurse for rest of elements.
                             (mapcar 'cdr args)))))

          (mapcar* 'cons '(a b c) '(1 2 3 4))
               => ((a . 1) (b . 2) (c . 3))

 - Function: mapconcat FUNCTION SEQUENCE SEPARATOR
     `mapconcat' applies FUNCTION to each element of SEQUENCE: the
     results, which must be strings, are concatenated.  Between each
     pair of result strings, `mapconcat' inserts the string SEPARATOR.
     Usually SEPARATOR contains a space or comma or other suitable
     punctuation.

     The argument FUNCTION must be a function that can take one
     argument and return a string.  The argument SEQUENCE can be any
     kind of sequence; that is, a list, a vector, a bit vector, or a
     string.

          (mapconcat 'symbol-name
                     '(The cat in the hat)
                     " ")
               => "The cat in the hat"

          (mapconcat (function (lambda (x) (format "%c" (1+ x))))
                     "HAL-8000"
                     "")
               => "IBM.9111"

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Anonymous Functions,  Next: Function Cells,  Prev: Mapping Functions,  Up: Functions

Anonymous Functions
===================

   In Lisp, a function is a list that starts with `lambda', a byte-code
function compiled from such a list, or alternatively a primitive
subr-object; names are "extra".  Although usually functions are defined
with `defun' and given names at the same time, it is occasionally more
concise to use an explicit lambda expression--an anonymous function.
Such a list is valid wherever a function name is.

   Any method of creating such a list makes a valid function.  Even
this:

     (setq silly (append '(lambda (x)) (list (list '+ (* 3 4) 'x))))
     => (lambda (x) (+ 12 x))

This computes a list that looks like `(lambda (x) (+ 12 x))' and makes
it the value (*not* the function definition!) of `silly'.

   Here is how we might call this function:

     (funcall silly 1)
     => 13

(It does *not* work to write `(silly 1)', because this function is not
the *function definition* of `silly'.  We have not given `silly' any
function definition, just a value as a variable.)

   Most of the time, anonymous functions are constants that appear in
your program.  For example, you might want to pass one as an argument
to the function `mapcar', which applies any given function to each
element of a list.  Here we pass an anonymous function that multiplies
a number by two:

     (defun double-each (list)
       (mapcar '(lambda (x) (* 2 x)) list))
     => double-each
     (double-each '(2 11))
     => (4 22)

In such cases, we usually use the special form `function' instead of
simple quotation to quote the anonymous function.

 - Special Form: function FUNCTION-OBJECT
     This special form returns FUNCTION-OBJECT without evaluating it.
     In this, it is equivalent to `quote'.  However, it serves as a
     note to the XEmacs Lisp compiler that FUNCTION-OBJECT is intended
     to be used only as a function, and therefore can safely be
     compiled.  Contrast this with `quote', in *Note Quoting::.

   Using `function' instead of `quote' makes a difference inside a
function or macro that you are going to compile.  For example:

     (defun double-each (list)
       (mapcar (function (lambda (x) (* 2 x))) list))
     => double-each
     (double-each '(2 11))
     => (4 22)

If this definition of `double-each' is compiled, the anonymous function
is compiled as well.  By contrast, in the previous definition where
ordinary `quote' is used, the argument passed to `mapcar' is the
precise list shown:

     (lambda (x) (* x 2))

The Lisp compiler cannot assume this list is a function, even though it
looks like one, since it does not know what `mapcar' does with the
list.  Perhaps `mapcar' will check that the CAR of the third element is
the symbol `*'!  The advantage of `function' is that it tells the
compiler to go ahead and compile the constant function.

   We sometimes write `function' instead of `quote' when quoting the
name of a function, but this usage is just a sort of comment.

     (function SYMBOL) == (quote SYMBOL) == 'SYMBOL

   See `documentation' in *Note Accessing Documentation::, for a
realistic example using `function' and an anonymous function.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Function Cells,  Next: Inline Functions,  Prev: Anonymous Functions,  Up: Functions

Accessing Function Cell Contents
================================

   The "function definition" of a symbol is the object stored in the
function cell of the symbol.  The functions described here access, test,
and set the function cell of symbols.

   See also the function `indirect-function' in *Note Function
Indirection::.

 - Function: symbol-function SYMBOL
     This returns the object in the function cell of SYMBOL.  If the
     symbol's function cell is void, a `void-function' error is
     signaled.

     This function does not check that the returned object is a
     legitimate function.

          (defun bar (n) (+ n 2))
               => bar
          (symbol-function 'bar)
               => (lambda (n) (+ n 2))
          (fset 'baz 'bar)
               => bar
          (symbol-function 'baz)
               => bar

   If you have never given a symbol any function definition, we say that
that symbol's function cell is "void".  In other words, the function
cell does not have any Lisp object in it.  If you try to call such a
symbol as a function, it signals a `void-function' error.

   Note that void is not the same as `nil' or the symbol `void'.  The
symbols `nil' and `void' are Lisp objects, and can be stored into a
function cell just as any other object can be (and they can be valid
functions if you define them in turn with `defun').  A void function
cell contains no object whatsoever.

   You can test the voidness of a symbol's function definition with
`fboundp'.  After you have given a symbol a function definition, you
can make it void once more using `fmakunbound'.

 - Function: fboundp SYMBOL
     This function returns `t' if the symbol has an object in its
     function cell, `nil' otherwise.  It does not check that the object
     is a legitimate function.

 - Function: fmakunbound SYMBOL
     This function makes SYMBOL's function cell void, so that a
     subsequent attempt to access this cell will cause a `void-function'
     error.  (See also `makunbound', in *Note Local Variables::.)

          (defun foo (x) x)
               => x
          (foo 1)
               =>1
          (fmakunbound 'foo)
               => x
          (foo 1)
          error--> Symbol's function definition is void: foo

 - Function: fset SYMBOL OBJECT
     This function stores OBJECT in the function cell of SYMBOL.  The
     result is OBJECT.  Normally OBJECT should be a function or the
     name of a function, but this is not checked.

     There are three normal uses of this function:

        * Copying one symbol's function definition to another.  (In
          other words, making an alternate name for a function.)

        * Giving a symbol a function definition that is not a list and
          therefore cannot be made with `defun'.  For example, you can
          use `fset' to give a symbol `s1' a function definition which
          is another symbol `s2'; then `s1' serves as an alias for
          whatever definition `s2' presently has.

        * In constructs for defining or altering functions.  If `defun'
          were not a primitive, it could be written in Lisp (as a
          macro) using `fset'.

     Here are examples of the first two uses:

          ;; Give `first' the same definition `car' has.
          (fset 'first (symbol-function 'car))
               => #<subr car>
          (first '(1 2 3))
               => 1
          
          ;; Make the symbol `car' the function definition of `xfirst'.
          (fset 'xfirst 'car)
               => car
          (xfirst '(1 2 3))
               => 1
          (symbol-function 'xfirst)
               => car
          (symbol-function (symbol-function 'xfirst))
               => #<subr car>
          
          ;; Define a named keyboard macro.
          (fset 'kill-two-lines "\^u2\^k")
               => "\^u2\^k"

     See also the related functions `define-function' and `defalias',
     in *Note Defining Functions::.

   When writing a function that extends a previously defined function,
the following idiom is sometimes used:

     (fset 'old-foo (symbol-function 'foo))
     (defun foo ()
       "Just like old-foo, except more so."
       (old-foo)
       (more-so))

This does not work properly if `foo' has been defined to autoload.  In
such a case, when `foo' calls `old-foo', Lisp attempts to define
`old-foo' by loading a file.  Since this presumably defines `foo'
rather than `old-foo', it does not produce the proper results.  The
only way to avoid this problem is to make sure the file is loaded
before moving aside the old definition of `foo'.

   But it is unmodular and unclean, in any case, for a Lisp file to
redefine a function defined elsewhere.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Inline Functions,  Next: Related Topics,  Prev: Function Cells,  Up: Functions

Inline Functions
================

   You can define an "inline function" by using `defsubst' instead of
`defun'.  An inline function works just like an ordinary function
except for one thing: when you compile a call to the function, the
function's definition is open-coded into the caller.

   Making a function inline makes explicit calls run faster.  But it
also has disadvantages.  For one thing, it reduces flexibility; if you
change the definition of the function, calls already inlined still use
the old definition until you recompile them.  Since the flexibility of
redefining functions is an important feature of XEmacs, you should not
make a function inline unless its speed is really crucial.

   Another disadvantage is that making a large function inline can
increase the size of compiled code both in files and in memory.  Since
the speed advantage of inline functions is greatest for small
functions, you generally should not make large functions inline.

   It's possible to define a macro to expand into the same code that an
inline function would execute.  But the macro would have a limitation:
you can use it only explicitly--a macro cannot be called with `apply',
`mapcar' and so on.  Also, it takes some work to convert an ordinary
function into a macro.  (*Note Macros::.)  To convert it into an inline
function is very easy; simply replace `defun' with `defsubst'.  Since
each argument of an inline function is evaluated exactly once, you
needn't worry about how many times the body uses the arguments, as you
do for macros.  (*Note Argument Evaluation::.)

   Inline functions can be used and open-coded later on in the same
file, following the definition, just like macros.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Related Topics,  Prev: Inline Functions,  Up: Functions

Other Topics Related to Functions
=================================

   Here is a table of several functions that do things related to
function calling and function definitions.  They are documented
elsewhere, but we provide cross references here.

`apply'
     See *Note Calling Functions::.

`autoload'
     See *Note Autoload::.

`call-interactively'
     See *Note Interactive Call::.

`commandp'
     See *Note Interactive Call::.

`documentation'
     See *Note Accessing Documentation::.

`eval'
     See *Note Eval::.

`funcall'
     See *Note Calling Functions::.

`ignore'
     See *Note Calling Functions::.

`indirect-function'
     See *Note Function Indirection::.

`interactive'
     See *Note Using Interactive::.

`interactive-p'
     See *Note Interactive Call::.

`mapatoms'
     See *Note Creating Symbols::.

`mapcar'
     See *Note Mapping Functions::.

`mapconcat'
     See *Note Mapping Functions::.

`undefined'
     See *Note Key Lookup::.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Macros,  Next: Loading,  Prev: Functions,  Up: Top

Macros
******

   "Macros" enable you to define new control constructs and other
language features.  A macro is defined much like a function, but instead
of telling how to compute a value, it tells how to compute another Lisp
expression which will in turn compute the value.  We call this
expression the "expansion" of the macro.

   Macros can do this because they operate on the unevaluated
expressions for the arguments, not on the argument values as functions
do.  They can therefore construct an expansion containing these
argument expressions or parts of them.

   If you are using a macro to do something an ordinary function could
do, just for the sake of speed, consider using an inline function
instead.  *Note Inline Functions::.

* Menu:

* Simple Macro::            A basic example.
* Expansion::               How, when and why macros are expanded.
* Compiling Macros::        How macros are expanded by the compiler.
* Defining Macros::         How to write a macro definition.
* Backquote::               Easier construction of list structure.
* Problems with Macros::    Don't evaluate the macro arguments too many times.
                              Don't hide the user's variables.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Simple Macro,  Next: Expansion,  Up: Macros

A Simple Example of a Macro
===========================

   Suppose we would like to define a Lisp construct to increment a
variable value, much like the `++' operator in C.  We would like to
write `(inc x)' and have the effect of `(setq x (1+ x))'.  Here's a
macro definition that does the job:

     (defmacro inc (var)
        (list 'setq var (list '1+ var)))

   When this is called with `(inc x)', the argument `var' has the value
`x'--*not* the *value* of `x'.  The body of the macro uses this to
construct the expansion, which is `(setq x (1+ x))'.  Once the macro
definition returns this expansion, Lisp proceeds to evaluate it, thus
incrementing `x'.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Expansion,  Next: Compiling Macros,  Prev: Simple Macro,  Up: Macros

Expansion of a Macro Call
=========================

   A macro call looks just like a function call in that it is a list
which starts with the name of the macro.  The rest of the elements of
the list are the arguments of the macro.

   Evaluation of the macro call begins like evaluation of a function
call except for one crucial difference: the macro arguments are the
actual expressions appearing in the macro call.  They are not evaluated
before they are given to the macro definition.  By contrast, the
arguments of a function are results of evaluating the elements of the
function call list.

   Having obtained the arguments, Lisp invokes the macro definition just
as a function is invoked.  The argument variables of the macro are bound
to the argument values from the macro call, or to a list of them in the
case of a `&rest' argument.  And the macro body executes and returns
its value just as a function body does.

   The second crucial difference between macros and functions is that
the value returned by the macro body is not the value of the macro call.
Instead, it is an alternate expression for computing that value, also
known as the "expansion" of the macro.  The Lisp interpreter proceeds
to evaluate the expansion as soon as it comes back from the macro.

   Since the expansion is evaluated in the normal manner, it may contain
calls to other macros.  It may even be a call to the same macro, though
this is unusual.

   You can see the expansion of a given macro call by calling
`macroexpand'.

 - Function: macroexpand FORM &optional ENVIRONMENT
     This function expands FORM, if it is a macro call.  If the result
     is another macro call, it is expanded in turn, until something
     which is not a macro call results.  That is the value returned by
     `macroexpand'.  If FORM is not a macro call to begin with, it is
     returned as given.

     Note that `macroexpand' does not look at the subexpressions of
     FORM (although some macro definitions may do so).  Even if they
     are macro calls themselves, `macroexpand' does not expand them.

     The function `macroexpand' does not expand calls to inline
     functions.  Normally there is no need for that, since a call to an
     inline function is no harder to understand than a call to an
     ordinary function.

     If ENVIRONMENT is provided, it specifies an alist of macro
     definitions that shadow the currently defined macros.  Byte
     compilation uses this feature.

          (defmacro inc (var)
              (list 'setq var (list '1+ var)))
               => inc

          (macroexpand '(inc r))
               => (setq r (1+ r))

          (defmacro inc2 (var1 var2)
              (list 'progn (list 'inc var1) (list 'inc var2)))
               => inc2

          (macroexpand '(inc2 r s))
               => (progn (inc r) (inc s))  ; `inc' not expanded here.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Compiling Macros,  Next: Defining Macros,  Prev: Expansion,  Up: Macros

Macros and Byte Compilation
===========================

   You might ask why we take the trouble to compute an expansion for a
macro and then evaluate the expansion.  Why not have the macro body
produce the desired results directly?  The reason has to do with
compilation.

   When a macro call appears in a Lisp program being compiled, the Lisp
compiler calls the macro definition just as the interpreter would, and
receives an expansion.  But instead of evaluating this expansion, it
compiles the expansion as if it had appeared directly in the program.
As a result, the compiled code produces the value and side effects
intended for the macro, but executes at full compiled speed.  This would
not work if the macro body computed the value and side effects
itself--they would be computed at compile time, which is not useful.

   In order for compilation of macro calls to work, the macros must be
defined in Lisp when the calls to them are compiled.  The compiler has a
special feature to help you do this: if a file being compiled contains a
`defmacro' form, the macro is defined temporarily for the rest of the
compilation of that file.  To use this feature, you must define the
macro in the same file where it is used and before its first use.

   Byte-compiling a file executes any `require' calls at top-level in
the file.  This is in case the file needs the required packages for
proper compilation.  One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions
are available during compilation is to require the files that define
them (*note Named Features::.).  To avoid loading the macro definition
files when someone *runs* the compiled program, write
`eval-when-compile' around the `require' calls (*note Eval During
Compile::.).

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Defining Macros,  Next: Backquote,  Prev: Compiling Macros,  Up: Macros

Defining Macros
===============

   A Lisp macro is a list whose CAR is `macro'.  Its CDR should be a
function; expansion of the macro works by applying the function (with
`apply') to the list of unevaluated argument-expressions from the macro
call.

   It is possible to use an anonymous Lisp macro just like an anonymous
function, but this is never done, because it does not make sense to pass
an anonymous macro to functionals such as `mapcar'.  In practice, all
Lisp macros have names, and they are usually defined with the special
form `defmacro'.

 - Special Form: defmacro NAME ARGUMENT-LIST BODY-FORMS...
     `defmacro' defines the symbol NAME as a macro that looks like this:

          (macro lambda ARGUMENT-LIST . BODY-FORMS)

     This macro object is stored in the function cell of NAME.  The
     value returned by evaluating the `defmacro' form is NAME, but
     usually we ignore this value.

     The shape and meaning of ARGUMENT-LIST is the same as in a
     function, and the keywords `&rest' and `&optional' may be used
     (*note Argument List::.).  Macros may have a documentation string,
     but any `interactive' declaration is ignored since macros cannot be
     called interactively.