Use `=daikanwa/ho' instead of `morohashi-daikanwa' for M-Hdddd.

[chise/xemacs-chise.git] / man / lispref / compile.texi

@c -*-texinfo-*-
@c This is part of the XEmacs Lisp Reference Manual.
@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
@c See the file lispref.texi for copying conditions.
@setfilename ../../info/compile.info
@node Byte Compilation, Debugging, Loading, Top
@chapter Byte Compilation
@cindex byte-code
@cindex compilation

  XEmacs Lisp has a @dfn{compiler} that translates functions written
in Lisp into a special representation called @dfn{byte-code} that can be
executed more efficiently.  The compiler replaces Lisp function
definitions with byte-code.  When a byte-coded function is called, its
definition is evaluated by the @dfn{byte-code interpreter}.

  Because the byte-compiled code is evaluated by the byte-code
interpreter, instead of being executed directly by the machine's
hardware (as true compiled code is), byte-code is completely
transportable from machine to machine without recompilation.  It is not,
however, as fast as true compiled code.

In general, any version of Emacs can run byte-compiled code produced
by recent earlier versions of Emacs, but the reverse is not true.  In
particular, if you compile a program with XEmacs 20, the compiled code
may not run in earlier versions.

The first time a compiled-function object is executed, the byte-code
instructions are validated and the byte-code is further optimized.  An
@code{invalid-byte-code} error is signaled if the byte-code is invalid,
for example if it contains invalid opcodes.  This usually means a bug in
the byte compiler.

@iftex
@xref{Docs and Compilation}.
@end iftex

  @xref{Compilation Errors}, for how to investigate errors occurring in
byte compilation.

@menu
* Speed of Byte-Code::          An example of speedup from byte compilation.
* Compilation Functions::       Byte compilation functions.
* Compilation Options::         Controlling the byte compiler's behavior.
* Docs and Compilation::        Dynamic loading of documentation strings.
* Dynamic Loading::             Dynamic loading of individual functions.
* Eval During Compile::         Code to be evaluated when you compile.
* Compiled-Function Objects::   The data type used for byte-compiled functions.
* Disassembly::                 Disassembling byte-code; how to read byte-code.
* Different Behavior::          When compiled code gives different results.
@end menu

@node Speed of Byte-Code
@section Performance of Byte-Compiled Code

  A byte-compiled function is not as efficient as a primitive function
written in C, but runs much faster than the version written in Lisp.
Here is an example:

@example
@group
(defun silly-loop (n)
  "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
  (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
    (while (> (setq n (1- n))
              0))
    (list t1 (current-time-string))))
@result{} silly-loop
@end group

@group
(silly-loop 5000000)
@result{} ("Mon Sep 14 15:51:49 1998"
    "Mon Sep 14 15:52:07 1998")  ; @r{18 seconds}
@end group

@group
(byte-compile 'silly-loop)
@result{} #<compiled-function
(n)
"...(23)"
[current-time-string t1 n 0]
2
"Return time before and after N iterations of a loop.">
@end group

@group
(silly-loop 5000000)
@result{} ("Mon Sep 14 15:53:43 1998"
    "Mon Sep 14 15:53:49 1998")  ; @r{6 seconds}
@end group
@end example

  In this example, the interpreted code required 18 seconds to run,
whereas the byte-compiled code required 6 seconds.  These results are
representative, but actual results will vary greatly.

@node Compilation Functions
@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
@section The Compilation Functions
@cindex compilation functions

  You can byte-compile an individual function or macro definition with
the @code{byte-compile} function.  You can compile a whole file with
@code{byte-compile-file}, or several files with
@code{byte-recompile-directory} or @code{batch-byte-compile}.

  When you run the byte compiler, you may get warnings in a buffer
called @samp{*Compile-Log*}.  These report things in your program that
suggest a problem but are not necessarily erroneous.

@cindex macro compilation
  Be careful when byte-compiling code that uses macros.  Macro calls are
expanded when they are compiled, so the macros must already be defined
for proper compilation.  For more details, see @ref{Compiling Macros}.

  Normally, compiling a file does not evaluate the file's contents or
load the file.  But it does execute any @code{require} calls at top
level in the file.  One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions
are available during compilation is to @code{require} the file that defines
them (@pxref{Named Features}).  To avoid loading the macro definition files
when someone @emph{runs} the compiled program, write
@code{eval-when-compile} around the @code{require} calls (@pxref{Eval
During Compile}).

@defun byte-compile symbol
This function byte-compiles the function definition of @var{symbol},
replacing the previous definition with the compiled one.  The function
definition of @var{symbol} must be the actual code for the function;
i.e., the compiler does not follow indirection to another symbol.
@code{byte-compile} returns the new, compiled definition of
@var{symbol}.

  If @var{symbol}'s definition is a compiled-function object,
@code{byte-compile} does nothing and returns @code{nil}.  Lisp records
only one function definition for any symbol, and if that is already
compiled, non-compiled code is not available anywhere.  So there is no
way to ``compile the same definition again.''

@example
@group
(defun factorial (integer)
  "Compute factorial of INTEGER."
  (if (= 1 integer) 1
    (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
@result{} factorial
@end group

@group
(byte-compile 'factorial)
@result{} #<compiled-function
(integer)
"...(21)"
[integer 1 factorial]
3
"Compute factorial of INTEGER.">
@end group
@end example

@noindent
The result is a compiled-function object.  The string it contains is
the actual byte-code; each character in it is an instruction or an
operand of an instruction.  The vector contains all the constants,
variable names and function names used by the function, except for
certain primitives that are coded as special instructions.
@end defun

@deffn Command compile-defun &optional arg
This command reads the defun containing point, compiles it, and
evaluates the result.  If you use this on a defun that is actually a
function definition, the effect is to install a compiled version of that
function.

@c XEmacs feature
If @var{arg} is non-@code{nil}, the result is inserted in the current
buffer after the form; otherwise, it is printed in the minibuffer.
@end deffn

@deffn Command byte-compile-file filename &optional load
This function compiles a file of Lisp code named @var{filename} into
a file of byte-code.  The output file's name is made by appending
@samp{c} to the end of @var{filename}.

@c XEmacs feature
  If @code{load} is non-@code{nil}, the file is loaded after having been
compiled.

Compilation works by reading the input file one form at a time.  If it
is a definition of a function or macro, the compiled function or macro
definition is written out.  Other forms are batched together, then each
batch is compiled, and written so that its compiled code will be
executed when the file is read.  All comments are discarded when the
input file is read.

This command returns @code{t}.  When called interactively, it prompts
for the file name.

@example
@group
% ls -l push*
-rw-r--r--  1 lewis     791 Oct  5 20:31 push.el
@end group

@group
(byte-compile-file "~/emacs/push.el")
     @result{} t
@end group

@group
% ls -l push*
-rw-r--r--  1 lewis     791 Oct  5 20:31 push.el
-rw-r--r--  1 lewis     638 Oct  8 20:25 push.elc
@end group
@end example
@end deffn

@c flag is not optional in FSF Emacs
@deffn Command byte-recompile-directory directory &optional flag norecursion force
@cindex library compilation
This function recompiles every @samp{.el} file in @var{directory} that
needs recompilation.  A file needs recompilation if a @samp{.elc} file
exists but is older than the @samp{.el} file.

Files in subdirectories of @var{directory} are also processed unless
optional argument @var{norecursion} is non-@code{nil}.

When a @samp{.el} file has no corresponding @samp{.elc} file, then
@var{flag} says what to do.  If it is @code{nil}, these files are
ignored.  If it is non-@code{nil}, the user is asked whether to compile
each such file.

If the fourth optional argument @var{force} is non-@code{nil},
recompile every @samp{.el} file that already has a @samp{.elc} file.

The return value of this command is unpredictable.
@end deffn

@defun batch-byte-compile
This function runs @code{byte-compile-file} on files specified on the
command line.  This function must be used only in a batch execution of
Emacs, as it kills Emacs on completion.  An error in one file does not
prevent processing of subsequent files.  (The file that gets the error
will not, of course, produce any compiled code.)

@example
% xemacs -batch -f batch-byte-compile *.el
@end example
@end defun

@c XEmacs feature
@defun batch-byte-recompile-directory
  This function is similar to @code{batch-byte-compile} but runs the
command @code{byte-recompile-directory} on the files remaining on the
command line.
@end defun

@c XEmacs feature
@defvar byte-recompile-directory-ignore-errors-p
  When non-@code{nil}, @code{byte-recompile-directory} will continue
compiling even when an error occurs in a file.  Default: @code{nil}, but
bound to @code{t} by @code{batch-byte-recompile-directory}.
@end defvar

@c XEmacs feature (?)
@defvar byte-recompile-directory-recursively
   When non-@code{nil}, @code{byte-recompile-directory} will recurse on
subdirectories.  Default: @code{t}.
@end defvar


@defun byte-code instructions constants stack-depth
@cindex byte-code interpreter
This function actually interprets byte-code.
Don't call this function yourself.  Only the byte compiler knows how to
generate valid calls to this function.

In newer Emacs versions (19 and up), byte code is usually executed as
part of a compiled-function object, and only rarely due to an explicit
call to @code{byte-code}.  A byte-compiled function was once actually
defined with a body that calls @code{byte-code}, but in recent versions
of Emacs @code{byte-code} is only used to run isolated fragments of lisp
code without an associated argument list.
@end defun

@node Compilation Options
@section Options for the Byte Compiler
@cindex compilation options

Warning: this node is a quick draft based on docstrings.  There may be
inaccuracies, as the docstrings occasionally disagree with each other.
This has not been checked yet.

The byte compiler and optimizer are controlled by the following
variables.  The @code{byte-compiler-options} macro described below
provides a convenient way to set most of them on a file-by-file basis.

@defvar emacs-lisp-file-regexp
Regexp which matches Emacs Lisp source files.
You may want to redefine @code{byte-compile-dest-file} if you change
this.  Default: @code{"\\.el$"}.
@end defvar

@defun byte-compile-dest-file filename
Convert an Emacs Lisp source file name to a compiled file name.  This
function may be redefined by the user, if necessary, for compatibility
with @code{emacs-lisp-file-regexp}.
@end defun

@c ;; This can be the 'byte-compile property of any symbol.
@c (autoload 'byte-compile-inline-expand "byte-optimize")

@defvar byte-compile-verbose
When non-@code{nil}, print messages describing progress of
byte-compiler.  Default: @code{t} if interactive on a not-too-slow
terminal (see @code{search-slow-speed}), otherwise @code{nil}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-optimize
Level of optimization in the byte compiler.

@table @code
@item nil
Do no optimization.

@item t
Do all optimizations.

@item source
Do optimizations manipulating the source code only.

@item byte
Do optimizations manipulating the byte code (actually, LAP code) only.
@end table
Default: @code{t}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-delete-errors
When non-@code{nil}, the optimizer may delete forms that may signal an
error if that is the only change in the function's behavior.
This includes variable references and calls to functions such as
@code{car}.
Default: @code{t}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-optimize-log nil
When non-@code{nil}, the byte-compiler logs optimizations into
@file{*Compile-Log*}.

@table @code
@item nil
Log no optimization.

@item t
Log all optimizations.

@item source
Log optimizations manipulating the source code only.

@item byte
Log optimizations manipulating the byte code (actually, LAP code) only.
@end table
Default: @code{nil}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-error-on-warn
When non-@code{nil}, the byte-compiler reports warnings with @code{error}.
Default:  @code{nil}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-default-warnings
The warnings used when @code{byte-compile-warnings} is @code{t}.  Called
@code{byte-compile-warning-types} in GNU Emacs.
Default: @code{(redefine callargs subr-callargs free-vars unresolved
unused-vars obsolete)}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-warnings

List of warnings that the compiler should issue (@code{t} for the
default set).  Elements of the list may be:

@table @code
@item free-vars
References to variables not in the current lexical scope.

@item unused-vars
References to non-global variables bound but not referenced.

@item unresolved
Calls to unknown functions.

@item callargs
Lambda calls with args that don't match the definition.

@item subr-callargs
Calls to subrs with args that don't match the definition.

@item redefine
Function cell redefined from a macro to a lambda or vice
versa, or redefined to take a different number of arguments.

@item obsolete
Use of an obsolete function or variable.

@item pedantic
Warn of use of compatible symbols.
@end table

The default set is specified by @code{byte-compile-default-warnings} and
normally encompasses all possible warnings.

See also the macro @code{byte-compiler-options}.  Default: @code{t}.
@end defvar

The compiler can generate a call graph, which gives information about
which functions call which functions.

@defvar byte-compile-generate-call-tree
When non-@code{nil}, the compiler generates a call graph.  This records
functions that were called and from where.  If the value is @code{t},
compilation displays the call graph when it finishes.  If the value is
neither @code{t} nor @code{nil}, compilation asks you whether to display
the graph.

The call tree only lists functions called, not macros used. Those
functions which the byte-code interpreter knows about directly
(@code{eq}, @code{cons}, etc.) are not reported.

The call tree also lists those functions which are not known to be called
(that is, to which no calls have been compiled).  Functions which can be
invoked interactively are excluded from this list.  Default: @code{nil}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-call-tree nil

Alist of functions and their call tree, used internally.
Each element takes the form

  (@var{function} @var{callers} @var{calls})

where @var{callers} is a list of functions that call @var{function}, and
@var{calls} is a list of functions for which calls were generated while
compiling @var{function}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-call-tree-sort
When non-@code{nil}, sort the call tree.  The values @code{name},
@code{callers}, @code{calls}, and @code{calls+callers} specify different
fields to sort on.")  Default: @code{name}.
@end defvar

@code{byte-compile-overwrite-file} controls treatment of existing
compiled files.

@defvar byte-compile-overwrite-file
When non-@code{nil}, do not preserve backups of @file{.elc}s.
Precisely, if @code{nil}, old @file{.elc} files are deleted before the
new one is saved, and @file{.elc} files will have the same modes as the
corresponding @file{.el} file.  Otherwise, existing @file{.elc} files
will simply be overwritten, and the existing modes will not be changed.
If this variable is @code{nil}, then an @file{.elc} file which is a
symbolic link will be turned into a normal file, instead of the file
which the link points to being overwritten.  Default: @code{t}.
@end defvar

Variables controlling recompiling directories are described elsewhere
@xref{Compilation Functions}.  They are
@code{byte-recompile-directory-ignore-errors-p} and
@code{byte-recompile-directory-recursively}.

The dynamic loading features are described elsewhere.  These are
controlled by the variables @code{byte-compile-dynamic} (@pxref{Dynamic
Loading}) and @code{byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings} (@pxref{Docs and
Compilation}).

The byte compiler is a relatively recent development, and has evolved
significantly over the period covering Emacs versions 19 and 20.  The
following variables control use of newer functionality by the byte
compiler.  These are rarely needed since the release of XEmacs 21.

Another set of compatibility issues arises between Mule and non-Mule
XEmacsen; there are no known compatibility issues specific to the byte
compiler.  There are also compatibility issues between XEmacs and GNU
Emacs's versions of the byte compiler.  While almost all of the byte
codes are the same, and code compiled by one version often runs
perfectly well on the other, this is very dangerous, and can result in
crashes or data loss.  Always recompile your Lisp when moving between
XEmacs and GNU Emacs.

@defvar byte-compile-single-version nil
When non-@code{nil}, the choice of emacs version (v19 or v20) byte-codes
will be hard-coded into bytecomp when it compiles itself.  If the
compiler itself is compiled with optimization, this causes a speedup.
Default: @code{nil}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-emacs19-compatibility
When non-@code{nil} generate output that can run in Emacs 19.
Default: @code{nil} when Emacs version is 20 or above, otherwise
@code{t}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-print-gensym
When non-@code{nil}, the compiler may generate code that creates unique
symbols at run-time.  This is achieved by printing uninterned symbols
using the @code{#:@var{}} notation, so that they will be read uninterned
when run.

With this feature, code that uses uninterned symbols in macros will
not be runnable under pre-21.0 XEmacsen.

Default: When @code{byte-compile-emacs19-compatibility} is non-nil, this
variable is ignored and considered to be @code{nil}.  Otherwise
@code{t}.
@end defvar

@defvar byte-compile-new-bytecodes
This is completely ignored.  For backwards compatibility.
@end defvar

@defun byte-compiler-options &rest args
Set some compilation-parameters for this file.  
This will affect only the file in which it appears; this does nothing when
evaluated, or when loaded from a @file{.el} file.

Each argument to this macro must be a list of a key and a value.
(#### Need to check whether the newer variables are settable here.)

@example
  Keys:           Values:               Corresponding variable:

  verbose         t, nil                byte-compile-verbose
  optimize        t, nil, source, byte  byte-optimize
  warnings        list of warnings      byte-compile-warnings
  file-format     emacs19, emacs20      byte-compile-emacs19-compatibility
@end example

The value specified with the @code{warnings}option must be a list,
containing some subset of the following flags:

@example
  free-vars     references to variables not in the current lexical scope.
  unused-vars   references to non-global variables bound but not referenced.
  unresolved    calls to unknown functions.
  callargs      lambda calls with args that don't match the definition.
  redefine      function cell redefined from a macro to a lambda or vice
                versa, or redefined to take a different number of arguments.
@end example

If the first element if the list is @code{+} or `@code{} then the
specified elements are added to or removed from the current set of
warnings, instead of the entire set of warnings being overwritten.
(#### Need to check whether the newer warnings are settable here.)

For example, something like this might appear at the top of a source file:

@example
    (byte-compiler-options
      (optimize t)
      (warnings (- callargs))           ; Don't warn about arglist mismatch
      (warnings (+ unused-vars))        ; Do warn about unused bindings
      (file-format emacs19))
@end example
@end defun

@node Docs and Compilation
@section Documentation Strings and Compilation
@cindex dynamic loading of documentation

  Functions and variables loaded from a byte-compiled file access their
documentation strings dynamically from the file whenever needed.  This
saves space within Emacs, and makes loading faster because the
documentation strings themselves need not be processed while loading the
file.  Actual access to the documentation strings becomes slower as a
result, but normally not enough to bother users.

  Dynamic access to documentation strings does have drawbacks:

@itemize @bullet
@item
If you delete or move the compiled file after loading it, Emacs can no
longer access the documentation strings for the functions and variables
in the file.

@item
If you alter the compiled file (such as by compiling a new version),
then further access to documentation strings in this file will give
nonsense results.
@end itemize

  If your site installs Emacs following the usual procedures, these
problems will never normally occur.  Installing a new version uses a new
directory with a different name; as long as the old version remains
installed, its files will remain unmodified in the places where they are
expected to be.

  However, if you have built Emacs yourself and use it from the
directory where you built it, you will experience this problem
occasionally if you edit and recompile Lisp files.  When it happens, you
can cure the problem by reloading the file after recompiling it.

  Versions of Emacs up to and including XEmacs 19.14 and FSF Emacs 19.28
do not support the dynamic docstrings feature, and so will not be able
to load bytecode created by more recent Emacs versions.  You can turn
off the dynamic docstring feature by setting
@code{byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings} to @code{nil}.  Once this is
done, you can compile files that will load into older Emacs versions.
You can do this globally, or for one source file by specifying a
file-local binding for the variable.  Here's one way to do that:

@example
-*-byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings: nil;-*-
@end example

@defvar byte-compile-dynamic-docstrings
If this is non-@code{nil}, the byte compiler generates compiled files
that are set up for dynamic loading of documentation strings.
Default: t.
@end defvar

@cindex @samp{#@@@var{count}}
@cindex @samp{#$}
  The dynamic documentation string feature writes compiled files that
use a special Lisp reader construct, @samp{#@@@var{count}}.  This
construct skips the next @var{count} characters.  It also uses the
@samp{#$} construct, which stands for ``the name of this file, as a
string.''  It is best not to use these constructs in Lisp source files.

@node Dynamic Loading
@section Dynamic Loading of Individual Functions

@cindex dynamic loading of functions
@cindex lazy loading
  When you compile a file, you can optionally enable the @dfn{dynamic
function loading} feature (also known as @dfn{lazy loading}).  With
dynamic function loading, loading the file doesn't fully read the
function definitions in the file.  Instead, each function definition
contains a place-holder which refers to the file.  The first time each
function is called, it reads the full definition from the file, to
replace the place-holder.

  The advantage of dynamic function loading is that loading the file
becomes much faster.  This is a good thing for a file which contains
many separate commands, provided that using one of them does not imply
you will soon (or ever) use the rest.  A specialized mode which provides
many keyboard commands often has that usage pattern: a user may invoke
the mode, but use only a few of the commands it provides.

  The dynamic loading feature has certain disadvantages:

@itemize @bullet
@item
If you delete or move the compiled file after loading it, Emacs can no
longer load the remaining function definitions not already loaded.

@item
If you alter the compiled file (such as by compiling a new version),
then trying to load any function not already loaded will get nonsense
results.
@end itemize

  If you compile a new version of the file, the best thing to do is
immediately load the new compiled file.  That will prevent any future
problems.

  The byte compiler uses the dynamic function loading feature if the
variable @code{byte-compile-dynamic} is non-@code{nil} at compilation
time.  Do not set this variable globally, since dynamic loading is
desirable only for certain files.  Instead, enable the feature for
specific source files with file-local variable bindings, like this:

@example
-*-byte-compile-dynamic: t;-*-
@end example

@defvar byte-compile-dynamic
If this is non-@code{nil}, the byte compiler generates compiled files
that are set up for dynamic function loading.
Default: nil.
@end defvar

@defun fetch-bytecode function
This immediately finishes loading the definition of @var{function} from
its byte-compiled file, if it is not fully loaded already.  The argument
@var{function} may be a compiled-function object or a function name.
@end defun

@node Eval During Compile
@section Evaluation During Compilation

  These features permit you to write code to be evaluated during
compilation of a program.

@defspec eval-and-compile body
This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated both when you compile the
containing code and when you run it (whether compiled or not).

You can get a similar result by putting @var{body} in a separate file
and referring to that file with @code{require}.  Using @code{require} is
preferable if there is a substantial amount of code to be executed in
this way.
@end defspec

@defspec eval-when-compile body
This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated at compile time and not when
the compiled program is loaded.  The result of evaluation by the
compiler becomes a constant which appears in the compiled program.  When
the program is interpreted, not compiled at all, @var{body} is evaluated
normally.

At top level, this is analogous to the Common Lisp idiom
@code{(eval-when (compile eval) @dots{})}.  Elsewhere, the Common Lisp
@samp{#.} reader macro (but not when interpreting) is closer to what
@code{eval-when-compile} does.
@end defspec

@node Compiled-Function Objects
@section Compiled-Function Objects
@cindex compiled function
@cindex byte-code function

  Byte-compiled functions have a special data type: they are
@dfn{compiled-function objects}. The evaluator handles this data type
specially when it appears as a function to be called.

  The printed representation for a compiled-function object normally
begins with @samp{#<compiled-function} and ends with @samp{>}.  However,
if the variable @code{print-readably} is non-@code{nil}, the object is
printed beginning with @samp{#[} and ending with @samp{]}.  This
representation can be read directly by the Lisp reader, and is used in
byte-compiled files (those ending in @samp{.elc}).

  In Emacs version 18, there was no compiled-function object data type;
compiled functions used the function @code{byte-code} to run the byte
code.

  A compiled-function object has a number of different attributes.
They are:

@table @var
@item arglist
The list of argument symbols.

@item instructions
The string containing the byte-code instructions.

@item constants
The vector of Lisp objects referenced by the byte code.  These include
symbols used as function names and variable names.

@item stack-depth
The maximum stack size this function needs.

@item doc-string
The documentation string (if any); otherwise, @code{nil}.  The value may
be a number or a list, in case the documentation string is stored in a
file.  Use the function @code{documentation} to get the real
documentation string (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}).

@item interactive
The interactive spec (if any).  This can be a string or a Lisp
expression.  It is @code{nil} for a function that isn't interactive.

@item domain
The domain (if any).  This is only meaningful if I18N3 (message-translation)
support was compiled into XEmacs.  This is a string defining which
domain to find the translation for the documentation string and
interactive prompt.  @xref{Domain Specification}.
@end table

Here's an example of a compiled-function object, in printed
representation.  It is the definition of the command
@code{backward-sexp}.

@example
(symbol-function 'backward-sexp)
@result{} #<compiled-function
(&optional arg)
"...(15)" [arg 1 forward-sexp] 2 854740 "_p">
@end example

  The primitive way to create a compiled-function object is with
@code{make-byte-code}:

@defun make-byte-code arglist instructions constants stack-depth &optional doc-string interactive
This function constructs and returns a compiled-function object
with the specified attributes.

@emph{Please note:} Unlike all other Emacs-lisp functions, calling this with
five arguments is @emph{not} the same as calling it with six arguments,
the last of which is @code{nil}.  If the @var{interactive} arg is
specified as @code{nil}, then that means that this function was defined
with @code{(interactive)}.  If the arg is not specified, then that means
the function is not interactive.  This is terrible behavior which is
retained for compatibility with old @samp{.elc} files which expected
these semantics.
@end defun

  You should not try to come up with the elements for a compiled-function
object yourself, because if they are inconsistent, XEmacs may crash
when you call the function.  Always leave it to the byte compiler to
create these objects; it makes the elements consistent (we hope).

  The following primitives are provided for accessing the elements of
a compiled-function object.

@defun compiled-function-arglist function
This function returns the argument list of compiled-function object
@var{function}.
@end defun

@defun compiled-function-instructions function
This function returns a string describing the byte-code instructions
of compiled-function object @var{function}.
@end defun

@defun compiled-function-constants function
This function returns the vector of Lisp objects referenced by
compiled-function object @var{function}.
@end defun

@defun compiled-function-stack-depth function
This function returns the maximum stack size needed by compiled-function
object @var{function}.
@end defun

@defun compiled-function-doc-string function
This function returns the doc string of compiled-function object
@var{function}, if available.
@end defun

@defun compiled-function-interactive function
This function returns the interactive spec of compiled-function object
@var{function}, if any.  The return value is @code{nil} or a two-element
list, the first element of which is the symbol @code{interactive} and
the second element is the interactive spec (a string or Lisp form).
@end defun

@defun compiled-function-domain function
This function returns the domain of compiled-function object
@var{function}, if any.  The result will be a string or @code{nil}.
@xref{Domain Specification}.
@end defun

@node Disassembly
@section Disassembled Byte-Code
@cindex disassembled byte-code

  People do not write byte-code; that job is left to the byte compiler.
But we provide a disassembler to satisfy a cat-like curiosity.  The
disassembler converts the byte-compiled code into humanly readable
form.

  The byte-code interpreter is implemented as a simple stack machine.
It pushes values onto a stack of its own, then pops them off to use them
in calculations whose results are themselves pushed back on the stack.
When a byte-code function returns, it pops a value off the stack and
returns it as the value of the function.

  In addition to the stack, byte-code functions can use, bind, and set
ordinary Lisp variables, by transferring values between variables and
the stack.

@deffn Command disassemble object &optional stream
This function prints the disassembled code for @var{object}.  If
@var{stream} is supplied, then output goes there.  Otherwise, the
disassembled code is printed to the stream @code{standard-output}.  The
argument @var{object} can be a function name or a lambda expression.

As a special exception, if this function is used interactively,
it outputs to a buffer named @samp{*Disassemble*}.
@end deffn

  Here are two examples of using the @code{disassemble} function.  We
have added explanatory comments to help you relate the byte-code to the
Lisp source; these do not appear in the output of @code{disassemble}.

@example
@group
(defun factorial (integer)
  "Compute factorial of an integer."
  (if (= 1 integer) 1
    (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
     @result{} factorial
@end group

@group
(factorial 4)
     @result{} 24
@end group

@group
(disassemble 'factorial)
     @print{} byte-code for factorial:
 doc: Compute factorial of an integer.
 args: (integer)
@end group

@group
0   varref   integer        ; @r{Get value of @code{integer}}
                            ;   @r{from the environment}
                            ;   @r{and push the value}
                            ;   @r{onto the stack.}

1   constant 1              ; @r{Push 1 onto stack.}
@end group

@group
2   eqlsign                 ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
                            ;   @r{compare them,}
                            ;   @r{and push result onto stack.}
@end group

@group
3   goto-if-nil 1           ; @r{Pop and test top of stack;}
                            ;   @r{if @code{nil},}
                            ;   @r{go to label 1 (which is also byte 7),}
                            ;   @r{else continue.}
@end group

@group
5   constant 1              ; @r{Push 1 onto top of stack.}

6   return                  ; @r{Return the top element}
                            ;   @r{of the stack.}
@end group

7:1 varref   integer        ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}

@group
8   constant factorial      ; @r{Push @code{factorial} onto stack.}

9   varref   integer        ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}

10  sub1                    ; @r{Pop @code{integer}, decrement value,}
                            ;   @r{push new value onto stack.}
@end group

@group
                            ; @r{Stack now contains:}
                            ;   @minus{} @r{decremented value of @code{integer}}
                            ;   @minus{} @r{@code{factorial}}
                            ;   @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
@end group

@group
15  call     1              ; @r{Call function @code{factorial} using}
                            ;   @r{the first (i.e., the top) element}
                            ;   @r{of the stack as the argument;}
                            ;   @r{push returned value onto stack.}
@end group

@group
                            ; @r{Stack now contains:}
                            ;   @minus{} @r{result of recursive}
                            ;        @r{call to @code{factorial}}
                            ;   @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
@end group

@group
12  mult                    ; @r{Pop top two values off the stack,}
                            ;   @r{multiply them,}
                            ;   @r{pushing the result onto the stack.}
@end group

@group
13  return                  ; @r{Return the top element}
                            ;   @r{of the stack.}
     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example

The @code{silly-loop} function is somewhat more complex:

@example
@group
(defun silly-loop (n)
  "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
  (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
    (while (> (setq n (1- n))
              0))
    (list t1 (current-time-string))))
     @result{} silly-loop
@end group

@group
(disassemble 'silly-loop)
     @print{} byte-code for silly-loop:
 doc: Return time before and after N iterations of a loop.
 args: (n)

0   constant current-time-string  ; @r{Push}
                                  ;   @r{@code{current-time-string}}
                                  ;   @r{onto top of stack.}
@end group

@group
1   call     0              ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string}}
                            ;   @r{ with no argument,}
                            ;   @r{ pushing result onto stack.}
@end group

@group
2   varbind  t1             ; @r{Pop stack and bind @code{t1}}
                            ;   @r{to popped value.}
@end group

@group
3:1 varref   n              ; @r{Get value of @code{n} from}
                            ;   @r{the environment and push}
                            ;   @r{the value onto the stack.}
@end group

@group
4   sub1                    ; @r{Subtract 1 from top of stack.}
@end group

@group
5   dup                     ; @r{Duplicate the top of the stack;}
                            ;   @r{i.e., copy the top of}
                            ;   @r{the stack and push the}
                            ;   @r{copy onto the stack.}

6   varset   n              ; @r{Pop the top of the stack,}
                            ;   @r{and set @code{n} to the value.}

                            ; @r{In effect, the sequence @code{dup varset}}
                            ;   @r{copies the top of the stack}
                            ;   @r{into the value of @code{n}}
                            ;   @r{without popping it.}
@end group

@group
7   constant 0              ; @r{Push 0 onto stack.}

8   gtr                     ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
                            ;   @r{test if @var{n} is greater than 0}
                            ;   @r{and push result onto stack.}
@end group

@group
9   goto-if-not-nil 1       ; @r{Goto label 1 (byte 3) if @code{n} <= 0}
                            ;   @r{(this exits the while loop).}
                            ;   @r{else pop top of stack}
                            ;   @r{and continue}
@end group

@group
11  varref   t1             ; @r{Push value of @code{t1} onto stack.}
@end group

@group
12  constant current-time-string  ; @r{Push}
                                  ;   @r{@code{current-time-string}}
                                  ;   @r{onto top of stack.}
@end group

@group
13  call     0              ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string} again.}

14  unbind   1              ; @r{Unbind @code{t1} in local environment.}
@end group

@group
15  list2                   ; @r{Pop top two elements off stack,}
                            ;   @r{create a list of them,}
                            ;   @r{and push list onto stack.}
@end group

@group
16  return                  ; @r{Return the top element of the stack.}

     @result{} nil
@end group
@end example


@node Different Behavior
@section Different Behavior

The intent is that compiled byte-code and the corresponding code
executed by the Lisp interpreter produce identical results.  However,
there are some circumstances where the results will differ.

@itemize @bullet
@item
Arithmetic operations may be rearranged for efficiency or compile-time
evaluation.  When floating point numbers are involved, this may produce
different values or an overflow.
@item
Some arithmetic operations may be optimized away.  For example, the
expression @code{(+ x)} may be optimized to simply @code{x}.  If the
value of @code{x} is a marker, then the value will be a marker instead
of an integer.  If the value of @samp{x} is a cons cell, then the
interpreter will issue an error, while the bytecode will not.

If you're trying to use @samp{(+ @var{object} 0)} to convert
@var{object} to integer, consider using an explicit conversion function,
which is clearer and guaranteed to work.
Instead of @samp{(+ @var{marker} 0)}, use @samp{(marker-position @var{marker})}.
Instead of @samp{(+ @var{char} 0)}, use @samp{(char-int @var{char})}.
@end itemize

For maximal equivalence between interpreted and compiled code, the
variables @code{byte-compile-delete-errors} and
@code{byte-compile-optimize} can be set to @code{nil}, but this is not
recommended.