-File: xemacs.info, Node: Manifesto, Next: Key Index, Prev: Glossary, Up: Top
-
-The GNU Manifesto
-*****************
-
-What's GNU? GNU's Not Unix!
-============================
-
- GNU, which stands for GNU's Not Unix, is the name for the complete
-Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so that I can give it
-away free to everyone who can use it. Several other volunteers are
-helping me. Contributions of time, money, programs, and equipment are
-greatly needed.
-
- So far we have an Emacs text editor with Lisp for writing editor
-commands, a source level debugger, a yacc-compatible parser generator,
-a linker, and around 35 utilities. A shell (command interpreter) is
-nearly completed. A new portable optimizing C compiler has compiled
-itself and may be released this year. An initial kernel exists, but
-many more features are needed to emulate Unix. When the kernel and
-compiler are finished, it will be possible to distribute a GNU system
-suitable for program development. We will use TeX as our text
-formatter, but an nroff is being worked on. We will use the free,
-portable X window system as well. After this we will add a portable
-Common Lisp, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of other
-things, plus online documentation. We hope to supply, eventually,
-everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and more.
-
- GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to
-Unix. We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our
-experience with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to
-have longer filenames, file version numbers, a crashproof file system,
-filename completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and
-perhaps eventually a Lisp-based window system through which several
-Lisp programs and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C
-and Lisp will be available as system programming languages. We will
-try to support UUCP, MIT Chaosnet, and Internet protocols for
-communication.
-
- GNU is aimed initially at machines in the 68000/16000 class with
-virtual memory, because they are the easiest machines to make it run
-on. The extra effort to make it run on smaller machines will be left
-to someone who wants to use it on them.
-
- To avoid horrible confusion, please pronounce the `G' in the word
-`GNU' when it is the name of this project.
-
-Why I Must Write GNU
-====================
-
- I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I
-must share it with other people who like it. Software sellers want to
-divide the users and conquer them, making each user agree not to share
-with others. I refuse to break solidarity with other users in this
-way. I cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a
-software license agreement. For years I worked within the Artificial
-Intelligence Lab to resist such tendencies and other inhospitalities,
-but eventually they had gone too far: I could not remain in an
-institution where such things are done for me against my will.
-
- So that I can continue to use computers without dishonor, I have
-decided to put together a sufficient body of free software so that I
-will be able to get along without any software that is not free. I
-have resigned from the AI lab to deny MIT any legal excuse to prevent
-me from giving GNU away.
-
-Why GNU Will Be Compatible With Unix
-====================================
-
- Unix is not my ideal system, but it is not too bad. The essential
-features of Unix seem to be good ones, and I think I can fill in what
-Unix lacks without spoiling them. And a system compatible with Unix
-would be convenient for many other people to adopt.
-
-How GNU Will Be Available
-=========================
-
- GNU is not in the public domain. Everyone will be permitted to
-modify and redistribute GNU, but no distributor will be allowed to
-restrict its further redistribution. That is to say, proprietary
-modifications will not be allowed. I want to make sure that all
-versions of GNU remain free.
-
-Why Many Other Programmers Want to Help
-=======================================
-
- I have found many other programmers who are excited about GNU and
-want to help.
-
- Many programmers are unhappy about the commercialization of system
-software. It may enable them to make more money, but it requires them
-to feel in conflict with other programmers in general rather than feel
-as comrades. The fundamental act of friendship among programmers is the
-sharing of programs; marketing arrangements now typically used
-essentially forbid programmers to treat others as friends. The
-purchaser of software must choose between friendship and obeying the
-law. Naturally, many decide that friendship is more important. But
-those who believe in law often do not feel at ease with either choice.
-They become cynical and think that programming is just a way of making
-money.
-
- By working on and using GNU rather than proprietary programs, we can
-be hospitable to everyone and obey the law. In addition, GNU serves as
-an example to inspire and a banner to rally others to join us in
-sharing. This can give us a feeling of harmony which is impossible if
-we use software that is not free. For about half the programmers I
-talk to, this is an important happiness that money cannot replace.
-
-How You Can Contribute
-======================
-
- I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and
-money. I'm asking individuals for donations of programs and work.
-
- One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU
-will run on them at an early date. The machines should be complete,
-ready-to-use systems, approved for use in a residential area, and not
-in need of sophisticated cooling or power.
-
- I have found very many programmers eager to contribute part-time
-work for GNU. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would
-be very hard to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not
-work together. But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this
-problem is absent. A complete Unix system contains hundreds of utility
-programs, each of which is documented separately. Most interface
-specifications are fixed by Unix compatibility. If each contributor
-can write a compatible replacement for a single Unix utility, and make
-it work properly in place of the original on a Unix system, then these
-utilities will work right when put together. Even allowing for Murphy
-to create a few unexpected problems, assembling these components will
-be a feasible task. (The kernel will require closer communication and
-will be worked on by a small, tight group.)
-
- If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full
-or part time. The salary won't be high by programmers' standards, but
-I'm looking for people for whom building community spirit is as
-important as making money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated
-people to devote their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them
-the need to make a living in another way.
-
-Why All Computer Users Will Benefit
-===================================
-
- Once GNU is written, everyone will be able to obtain good system
-software free, just like air.
-
- This means much more than just saving everyone the price of a Unix
-license. It means that much wasteful duplication of system programming
-effort will be avoided. This effort can go instead into advancing the
-state of the art.
-
- Complete system sources will be available to everyone. As a result,
-a user who needs changes in the system will always be free to make them
-himself, or hire any available programmer or company to make them for
-him. Users will no longer be at the mercy of one programmer or company
-which owns the sources and is in sole position to make changes.
-
- Schools will be able to provide a much more educational environment
-by encouraging all students to study and improve the system code.
-Harvard's computer lab used to have the policy that no program could be
-installed on the system if its sources were not on public display, and
-upheld it by actually refusing to install certain programs. I was very
-much inspired by this.
-
- Finally, the overhead of considering who owns the system software
-and what one is or is not entitled to do with it will be lifted.
-
- Arrangements to make people pay for using a program, including
-licensing of copies, always incur a tremendous cost to society through
-the cumbersome mechanisms necessary to figure out how much (that is,
-which programs) a person must pay for. And only a police state can
-force everyone to obey them. Consider a space station where air must
-be manufactured at great cost: charging each breather per liter of air
-may be fair, but wearing the metered gas mask all day and all night is
-intolerable even if everyone can afford to pay the air bill. And the
-TV cameras everywhere to see if you ever take the mask off are
-outrageous. It's better to support the air plant with a head tax and
-chuck the masks.
-
- Copying all or parts of a program is as natural to a programmer as
-breathing, and as productive. It ought to be as free.
-
-Some Easily Rebutted Objections to GNU's Goals
-==============================================
-
- "Nobody will use it if it is free, because that means they can't
- rely on any support."
-
- "You have to charge for the program to pay for providing the
- support."
-
- If people would rather pay for GNU plus service than get GNU free
-without service, a company to provide just service to people who have
-obtained GNU free ought to be profitable.
-
- We must distinguish between support in the form of real programming
-work and mere handholding. The former is something one cannot rely on
-from a software vendor. If your problem is not shared by enough
-people, the vendor will tell you to get lost.
-
- If your business needs to be able to rely on support, the only way
-is to have all the necessary sources and tools. Then you can hire any
-available person to fix your problem; you are not at the mercy of any
-individual. With Unix, the price of sources puts this out of
-consideration for most businesses. With GNU this will be easy. It is
-still possible for there to be no available competent person, but this
-problem cannot be blamed on distibution arrangements. GNU does not
-eliminate all the world's problems, only some of them.
-
- Meanwhile, the users who know nothing about computers need
-handholding: doing things for them which they could easily do
-themselves but don't know how.
-
- Such services could be provided by companies that sell just
-hand-holding and repair service. If it is true that users would rather
-spend money and get a product with service, they will also be willing
-to buy the service having got the product free. The service companies
-will compete in quality and price; users will not be tied to any
-particular one. Meanwhile, those of us who don't need the service
-should be able to use the program without paying for the service.
-
- "You cannot reach many people without advertising, and you must
- charge for the program to support that."
-
- "It's no use advertising a program people can get free."
-
- There are various forms of free or very cheap publicity that can be
-used to inform numbers of computer users about something like GNU. But
-it may be true that one can reach more microcomputer users with
-advertising. If this is really so, a business which advertises the
-service of copying and mailing GNU for a fee ought to be successful
-enough to pay for its advertising and more. This way, only the users
-who benefit from the advertising pay for it.
-
- On the other hand, if many people get GNU from their friends, and
-such companies don't succeed, this will show that advertising was not
-really necessary to spread GNU. Why is it that free market advocates
-don't want to let the free market decide this?
-
- "My company needs a proprietary operating system to get a
- competitive edge."
-
- GNU will remove operating system software from the realm of
-competition. You will not be able to get an edge in this area, but
-neither will your competitors be able to get an edge over you. You and
-they will compete in other areas, while benefitting mutually in this
-one. If your business is selling an operating system, you will not
-like GNU, but that's tough on you. If your business is something else,
-GNU can save you from being pushed into the expensive business of
-selling operating systems.
-
- I would like to see GNU development supported by gifts from many
-manufacturers and users, reducing the cost to each.
-
- "Don't programmers deserve a reward for their creativity?"
-
- If anything deserves a reward, it is social contribution.
-Creativity can be a social contribution, but only in so far as society
-is free to use the results. If programmers deserve to be rewarded for
-creating innovative programs, by the same token they deserve to be
-punished if they restrict the use of these programs.
-
- "Shouldn't a programmer be able to ask for a reward for his
- creativity?"
-
- There is nothing wrong with wanting pay for work, or seeking to
-maximize one's income, as long as one does not use means that are
-destructive. But the means customary in the field of software today
-are based on destruction.
-
- Extracting money from users of a program by restricting their use of
-it is destructive because the restrictions reduce the amount and the
-ways that the program can be used. This reduces the amount of wealth
-that humanity derives from the program. When there is a deliberate
-choice to restrict, the harmful consequences are deliberate destruction.
-
- The reason a good citizen does not use such destructive means to
-become wealthier is that, if everyone did so, we would all become
-poorer from the mutual destructiveness. This is Kantian ethics; or,
-the Golden Rule. Since I do not like the consequences that result if
-everyone hoards information, I am required to consider it wrong for one
-to do so. Specifically, the desire to be rewarded for one's creativity
-does not justify depriving the world in general of all or part of that
-creativity.
-
- "Won't programmers starve?"
-
- I could answer that nobody is forced to be a programmer. Most of us
-cannot manage to get any money for standing on the street and making
-faces. But we are not, as a result, condemned to spend our lives
-standing on the street making faces, and starving. We do something
-else.
-
- But that is the wrong answer because it accepts the questioner's
-implicit assumption: that without ownership of software, programmers
-cannot possibly be paid a cent. Supposedly it is all or nothing.
-
- The real reason programmers will not starve is that it will still be
-possible for them to get paid for programming; just not paid as much as
-now.
-
- Restricting copying is not the only basis for business in software.
-It is the most common basis because it brings in the most money. If it
-were prohibited, or rejected by the customer, software business would
-move to other bases of organization which are now used less often.
-There are always numerous ways to organize any kind of business.
-
- Probably programming will not be as lucrative on the new basis as it
-is now. But that is not an argument against the change. It is not
-considered an injustice that sales clerks make the salaries that they
-now do. If programmers made the same, that would not be an injustice
-either. (In practice they would still make considerably more than
-that.)
-
- "Don't people have a right to control how their creativity is
- used?"
-
- "Control over the use of one's ideas" really constitutes control over
-other people's lives; and it is usually used to make their lives more
-difficult.
-
- People who have studied the issue of intellectual property rights
-carefully (such as lawyers) say that there is no intrinsic right to
-intellectual property. The kinds of supposed intellectual property
-rights that the government recognizes were created by specific acts of
-legislation for specific purposes.
-
- For example, the patent system was established to encourage
-inventors to disclose the details of their inventions. Its purpose was
-to help society rather than to help inventors. At the time, the life
-span of 17 years for a patent was short compared with the rate of
-advance of the state of the art. Since patents are an issue only among
-manufacturers, for whom the cost and effort of a license agreement are
-small compared with setting up production, the patents often do not do
-much harm. They do not obstruct most individuals who use patented
-products.
-
- The idea of copyright did not exist in ancient times, when authors
-frequently copied other authors at length in works of non-fiction. This
-practice was useful, and is the only way many authors' works have
-survived even in part. The copyright system was created expressly for
-the purpose of encouraging authorship. In the domain for which it was
-invented--books, which could be copied economically only on a printing
-press--it did little harm, and did not obstruct most of the individuals
-who read the books.
-
- All intellectual property rights are just licenses granted by society
-because it was thought, rightly or wrongly, that society as a whole
-would benefit by granting them. But in any particular situation, we
-have to ask: are we really better off granting such license? What kind
-of act are we licensing a person to do?
-
- The case of programs today is very different from that of books a
-hundred years ago. The fact that the easiest way to copy a program is
-from one neighbor to another, the fact that a program has both source
-code and object code which are distinct, and the fact that a program is
-used rather than read and enjoyed, combine to create a situation in
-which a person who enforces a copyright is harming society as a whole
-both materially and spiritually; in which a person should not do so
-regardless of whether the law enables him to.
-
- "Competition makes things get done better."
-
- The paradigm of competition is a race: by rewarding the winner, we
-encourage everyone to run faster. When capitalism really works this
-way, it does a good job; but its defenders are wrong in assuming it
-always works this way. If the runners forget why the reward is offered
-and become intent on winning, no matter how, they may find other
-strategies--such as, attacking other runners. If the runners get into
-a fist fight, they will all finish late.
-
- Proprietary and secret software is the moral equivalent of runners
-in a fist fight. Sad to say, the only referee we've got does not seem
-to object to fights; he just regulates them ("For every ten yards you
-run, you can fire one shot"). He really ought to break them up, and
-penalize runners for even trying to fight.
-
- "Won't everyone stop programming without a monetary incentive?"
-
- Actually, many people will program with absolutely no monetary
-incentive. Programming has an irresistible fascination for some
-people, usually the people who are best at it. There is no shortage of
-professional musicians who keep at it even though they have no hope of
-making a living that way.
-
- But really this question, though commonly asked, is not appropriate
-to the situation. Pay for programmers will not disappear, only become
-less. So the right question is, will anyone program with a reduced
-monetary incentive? My experience shows that they will.
-
- For more than ten years, many of the world's best programmers worked
-at the Artificial Intelligence Lab for far less money than they could
-have had anywhere else. They got many kinds of non-monetary rewards:
-fame and appreciation, for example. And creativity is also fun, a
-reward in itself.
-
- Then most of them left when offered a chance to do the same
-interesting work for a lot of money.
-
- What the facts show is that people will program for reasons other
-than riches; but if given a chance to make a lot of money as well, they
-will come to expect and demand it. Low-paying organizations do poorly
-in competition with high-paying ones, but they do not have to do badly
-if the high-paying ones are banned.
-
- "We need the programmers desperately. If they demand that we stop
- helping our neighbors, we have to obey."
-
- You're never so desperate that you have to obey this sort of demand.
-Remember: millions for defense, but not a cent for tribute!
-
- "Programmers need to make a living somehow."
-
- In the short run, this is true. However, there are plenty of ways
-that programmers could make a living without selling the right to use a
-program. This way is customary now because it brings programmers and
-businessmen the most money, not because it is the only way to make a
-living. It is easy to find other ways if you want to find them. Here
-are a number of examples.
-
- A manufacturer introducing a new computer will pay for the porting of
-operating systems onto the new hardware.
-
- The sale of teaching, hand-holding, and maintenance services could
-also employ programmers.
-
- People with new ideas could distribute programs as freeware and ask
-for donations from satisfied users or sell hand-holding services. I
-have met people who are already working this way successfully.
-
- Users with related needs can form users' groups and pay dues. A
-group would contract with programming companies to write programs that
-the group's members would like to use.
-
- All sorts of development can be funded with a Software Tax:
-
- Suppose everyone who buys a computer has to pay a certain percent
- of the price as a software tax. The government gives this to an
- agency like the NSF to spend on software development.
-
- But if the computer buyer makes a donation to software development
- himself, he can take a credit against the tax. He can donate to
- the project of his own choosing--often, chosen because he hopes to
- use the results when
-
- it is done. He can take a credit for any amount of donation up to
- the total tax he had to pay.
-
- The total tax rate could be decided by a vote of the payers of the
- tax, weighted according to the amount they will be taxed on.
-
- The consequences:
-
- * The computer-using community supports software development.
-
- * This community decides what level of support is needed.
-
- * Users who care which projects their share is spent on can
- choose this for themselves.
-
- In the long run, making programs free is a step toward the
-post-scarcity world, where nobody will have to work very hard just to
-make a living. People will be free to devote themselves to activities
-that are fun, such as programming, after spending the necessary ten
-hours a week on required tasks such as legislation, family counseling,
-robot repair, and asteroid prospecting. There will be no need to be
-able to make a living from programming.
-
- We have already greatly reduced the amount of work that the whole
-society must do for its actual productivity, but only a little of this
-has translated itself into leisure for workers because much
-nonproductive activity is required to accompany productive activity.
-The main causes of this are bureaucracy and isometric struggles against
-competition. Free software will greatly reduce these drains in the
-area of software production. We must do this, in order for technical
-gains in productivity to translate into less work for us.
-
-\1f
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-* C-M-h: Marking Objects.
-* C-M-h (Fortran mode): Fortran Motion.
-* C-M-k <1>: Lists.
-* C-M-k: Killing.
-* C-M-n: Lists.
-* C-M-o: Indentation Commands.
-* C-M-p: Lists.
-* C-M-q: Multi-line Indent.
-* C-M-q (Fortran mode): ForIndent Commands.
-* C-M-t <1>: Lists.
-* C-M-t: Transpose.
-* C-M-u: Lists.
-* C-M-v <1>: Other Window.
-* C-M-v: Minibuffer Edit.
-* C-M-w: Appending Kills.
-* C-M-x <1>: External Lisp.
-* C-M-x: Lisp Eval.
-* C-n: Basic.
-* C-n (Calendar mode): Calendar Unit Motion.
-* C-o: Blank Lines.
-* C-p: Basic.
-* C-p (Calendar mode): Calendar Unit Motion.
-* C-q: Basic.
-* C-q (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* C-r: Incremental Search.
-* C-r (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* C-r (query-replace): Query Replace.
-* C-RIGHT: Basic.
-* C-s: Incremental Search.
-* C-s (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* C-SPC: Setting Mark.
-* C-SPC (Calendar mode): Mark and Region.
-* C-t <1>: Transpose.
-* C-t: Basic.
-* C-u: Arguments.
-* C-u - C-x ;: Comments.
-* C-u C-@: Mark Ring.
-* C-u C-SPC: Mark Ring.
-* C-u C-x v v: Editing with VC.
-* C-u TAB: Multi-line Indent.
-* C-v <1>: Scrolling.
-* C-v: Basic.
-* C-v (Calendar mode): Scroll Calendar.
-* C-w: Killing.
-* C-w (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* C-w (query-replace): Query Replace.
-* C-x: Key Sequences.
-* C-x $: Selective Display.
-* C-x (: Basic Kbd Macro.
-* C-x ): Basic Kbd Macro.
-* C-x .: Fill Prefix.
-* C-x 0: Change Window.
-* C-x 1: Change Window.
-* C-x 2: Split Window.
-* C-x 3: Split Window.
-* C-x 4: Pop Up Window.
-* C-x 4 .: Find Tag.
-* C-x 4 b: Select Buffer.
-* C-x 4 d: Dired Enter.
-* C-x 4 f: Visiting.
-* C-x 4 m: Sending Mail.
-* C-x 5 b: Select Buffer.
-* C-x 5 C-f: Visiting.
-* C-x ;: Comments.
-* C-x <: Horizontal Scrolling.
-* C-x < (Calendar mode): Scroll Calendar.
-* C-x =: Position Info.
-* C-x >: Horizontal Scrolling.
-* C-x > (Calendar mode): Scroll Calendar.
-* C-x [: Pages.
-* C-x [ (Calendar mode): Calendar Unit Motion.
-* C-x ]: Pages.
-* C-x ] (Calendar mode): Calendar Unit Motion.
-* C-x ^: Change Window.
-* C-x `: Compilation.
-* C-x a g: Defining Abbrevs.
-* C-x a i g: Defining Abbrevs.
-* C-x a i l: Defining Abbrevs.
-* C-x a l: Defining Abbrevs.
-* C-x b: Select Buffer.
-* C-x C-b: List Buffers.
-* C-x C-c: Exiting.
-* C-x C-d: ListDir.
-* C-x C-e: Lisp Eval.
-* C-x C-l: Case.
-* C-x C-o <1>: Killing.
-* C-x C-o: Blank Lines.
-* C-x C-p <1>: Pages.
-* C-x C-p: Marking Objects.
-* C-x C-q: Misc Buffer.
-* C-x C-q (version control): Editing with VC.
-* C-x C-s: Saving.
-* C-x C-t: Transpose.
-* C-x C-u: Case.
-* C-x C-v: Visiting.
-* C-x C-w: Saving.
-* C-x C-x: Setting Mark.
-* C-x C-x (Calendar mode): Mark and Region.
-* C-x d: Dired Enter.
-* C-x DEL <1>: Sentences.
-* C-x DEL <2>: Kill Errors.
-* C-x DEL: Killing.
-* C-x e: Basic Kbd Macro.
-* C-x ESC ESC: Repetition.
-* C-x f: Fill Commands.
-* C-x h: Marking Objects.
-* C-x k: Kill Buffer.
-* C-x l: Pages.
-* C-x m: Sending Mail.
-* C-x n n: Narrowing.
-* C-x n w: Narrowing.
-* C-x o: Other Window.
-* C-x q: Kbd Macro Query.
-* C-x r +: RegNumbers.
-* C-x r b: Bookmarks.
-* C-x r g: RegText.
-* C-x r i: RegText.
-* C-x r j: RegPos.
-* C-x r l: Bookmarks.
-* C-x r m: Bookmarks.
-* C-x r n: RegNumbers.
-* C-x r r: RegRect.
-* C-x r s: RegText.
-* C-x r SPC: RegPos.
-* C-x r w: RegConfig.
-* C-x RET: Mule Intro.
-* C-x RET c: Specify Coding.
-* C-x RET C-\: Select Input Method.
-* C-x RET f: Specify Coding.
-* C-x RET k: Specify Coding.
-* C-x RET p: Specify Coding.
-* C-x RET t: Specify Coding.
-* C-x s: Saving.
-* C-x TAB: Indentation Commands.
-* C-x u: Undo.
-* C-x v =: Old Versions.
-* C-x v a: Change Logs and VC.
-* C-x v c: Editing with VC.
-* C-x v d: VC Status.
-* C-x v h: Version Headers.
-* C-x v i: Editing with VC.
-* C-x v l: VC Status.
-* C-x v r: Making Snapshots.
-* C-x v s: Making Snapshots.
-* C-x v u: Editing with VC.
-* C-x v ~: Old Versions.
-* C-x }: Change Window.
-* C-y: Kill Ring.
-* C-y (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* C-z: Exiting.
-* control key: Intro to Keystrokes.
-* d (Calendar mode): Diary Commands.
-* DEL <1>: Program Modes.
-* DEL <2>: Major Modes.
-* DEL <3>: Kill Errors.
-* DEL <4>: Killing.
-* DEL: Basic.
-* DEL (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* DEL (query-replace): Query Replace.
-* DOWN: Basic.
-* END: Basic.
-* ESC <1>: Meta Key.
-* ESC: Key Sequences.
-* ESC (query-replace): Query Replace.
-* g CHAR (Calendar mode): From Other Calendar.
-* g d (Calendar mode): Specified Dates.
-* g m l (Calendar mode): Mayan Calendar.
-* h (Calendar mode): Holidays.
-* HOME: Basic.
-* hyper key <1>: Super and Hyper Keys.
-* hyper key <2>: Representing Keystrokes.
-* hyper key: Intro to Keystrokes.
-* i a (Calendar mode): Special Diary Entries.
-* i b (Calendar mode): Special Diary Entries.
-* i c (Calendar mode): Special Diary Entries.
-* i d (Calendar mode): Adding to Diary.
-* i m (Calendar mode): Adding to Diary.
-* i w (Calendar mode): Adding to Diary.
-* i y (Calendar mode): Adding to Diary.
-* LEFT: Basic.
-* LFD <1>: Basic Indent.
-* LFD <2>: Major Modes.
-* LFD: String Key Sequences.
-* LFD (TeX mode): TeX Editing.
-* m (Calendar mode): Diary Commands.
-* M (Calendar mode): Lunar Phases.
-* M-!: Single Shell.
-* M-$: Spelling.
-* M-%: Query Replace.
-* M-': Expanding Abbrevs.
-* M-(: Balanced Editing.
-* M-): Balanced Editing.
-* M-,: Tags Search.
-* M--: Arguments.
-* M-- M-c: Fixing Case.
-* M-- M-l: Fixing Case.
-* M-- M-u: Fixing Case.
-* M-.: Find Tag.
-* M-/: Dynamic Abbrevs.
-* M-1: Arguments.
-* M-;: Comments.
-* M-<: Basic.
-* M-< (Calendar mode): Move to Beginning or End.
-* M-=: Position Info.
-* M-= (Calendar mode): Mark and Region.
-* M->: Basic.
-* M-> (Calendar mode): Move to Beginning or End.
-* M-?: Nroff Mode.
-* M-@ <1>: Words.
-* M-@: Marking Objects.
-* M-[: Paragraphs.
-* M-\ <1>: Indentation Commands.
-* M-\: Killing.
-* M-]: Paragraphs.
-* M-^ <1>: Indentation Commands.
-* M-^: Killing.
-* M-a: Sentences.
-* M-a (Calendar mode): Move to Beginning or End.
-* M-b: Words.
-* M-c: Case.
-* M-C-s: Regexp Search.
-* M-d <1>: Words.
-* M-d: Killing.
-* M-DEL <1>: Words.
-* M-DEL <2>: Kill Errors.
-* M-DEL: Killing.
-* M-e: Sentences.
-* M-e (Calendar mode): Move to Beginning or End.
-* M-ESC: Lisp Eval.
-* M-f: Words.
-* M-g: Fill Commands.
-* M-h <1>: Paragraphs.
-* M-h: Marking Objects.
-* M-i: Tab Stops.
-* M-k <1>: Sentences.
-* M-k: Killing.
-* M-l: Case.
-* M-LFD: Comments.
-* M-LFD (Fortran mode): ForIndent Commands.
-* M-m: Indentation Commands.
-* M-n <1>: Nroff Mode.
-* M-n: Repetition.
-* M-n (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* M-n (minibuffer history): Minibuffer History.
-* M-n (Shell mode): Shell Mode.
-* M-p <1>: Nroff Mode.
-* M-p: Repetition.
-* M-p (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* M-p (minibuffer history): Minibuffer History.
-* M-p (Shell mode): Shell Mode.
-* M-q: Fill Commands.
-* M-r: Basic.
-* M-r (minibuffer history): Minibuffer History.
-* M-s: Fill Commands.
-* M-s (minibuffer history): Minibuffer History.
-* M-SPC: Killing.
-* M-t <1>: Words.
-* M-t: Transpose.
-* M-TAB <1>: Tabs in Picture.
-* M-TAB: Lisp Completion.
-* M-TAB (customization buffer): Changing an Option.
-* M-TAB (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* M-u: Case.
-* M-v <1>: Scrolling.
-* M-v: Basic.
-* M-v (Calendar mode): Scroll Calendar.
-* M-w: Kill Ring.
-* M-x: M-x.
-* M-y: Earlier Kills.
-* M-z: Killing.
-* M-{ (Calendar mode): Calendar Unit Motion.
-* M-|: Single Shell.
-* M-} (Calendar mode): Calendar Unit Motion.
-* M-~: Saving.
-* META: Meta Key.
-* meta key: Intro to Keystrokes.
-* next: Scrolling.
-* o (Calendar mode): Specified Dates.
-* p (Calendar mode): To Other Calendar.
-* p d (Calendar mode): General Calendar.
-* pgdn: Scrolling.
-* PGDN: Basic.
-* pgup: Scrolling.
-* PGUP: Basic.
-* prior: Scrolling.
-* q (Calendar mode): General Calendar.
-* RET: Basic.
-* RET (isearch-mode): Incremental Search.
-* RET (Shell mode): Shell Mode.
-* RIGHT: Basic.
-* s (Calendar mode): Diary Commands.
-* S (Calendar mode): Sunrise/Sunset.
-* S-TAB (customization buffer): Changing an Option.
-* shift key: Intro to Keystrokes.
-* SPC: Completion Commands.
-* SPC (Calendar mode): General Calendar.
-* SPC (query-replace): Query Replace.
-* super key <1>: Super and Hyper Keys.
-* super key <2>: Representing Keystrokes.
-* super key: Intro to Keystrokes.
-* t (Calendar mode): LaTeX Calendar.
-* TAB <1>: Basic Indent.
-* TAB <2>: Text Mode.
-* TAB <3>: Indentation.
-* TAB <4>: Major Modes.
-* TAB <5>: Completion Example.
-* TAB: String Key Sequences.
-* TAB (customization buffer): Changing an Option.
-* TAB (Shell mode): Shell Mode.
-* u (Calendar mode) <1>: Diary Commands.
-* u (Calendar mode): Holidays.
-* UP: Basic.
-* x (Calendar mode): Holidays.
+File: xemacs.info, Node: Glossary, Next: Manifesto, Prev: Intro, Up: Top
+
+Glossary
+********
+
+Abbrev
+ An abbrev is a text string which expands into a different text
+ string when present in the buffer. For example, you might define
+ a short word as an abbrev for a long phrase that you want to insert
+ frequently. *Note Abbrevs::.
+
+Aborting
+ Aborting means getting out of a recursive edit (q.v.). You can use
+ the commands `C-]' and `M-x top-level' for this. *Note Quitting::.
+
+Auto Fill mode
+ Auto Fill mode is a minor mode in which text you insert is
+ automatically broken into lines of fixed width. *Note Filling::.
+
+Auto Saving
+ Auto saving means that Emacs automatically stores the contents of
+ an Emacs buffer in a specially-named file so the information will
+ not be lost if the buffer is lost due to a system error or user
+ error. *Note Auto Save::.
+
+Backup File
+ A backup file records the contents that a file had before the
+ current editing session. Emacs creates backup files automatically
+ to help you track down or cancel changes you later regret. *Note
+ Backup::.
+
+Balance Parentheses
+ Emacs can balance parentheses manually or automatically. Manual
+ balancing is done by the commands to move over balanced expressions
+ (*note Lists::). Automatic balancing is done by blinking the
+ parenthesis that matches one just inserted (*note Matching Parens:
+ Matching.).
+
+Bind
+ To bind a key is to change its binding (q.v.). *Note Rebinding::.
+
+Binding
+ A key gets its meaning in Emacs by having a binding which is a
+ command (q.v.), a Lisp function that is run when the key is typed.
+ *Note Binding: Commands. Customization often involves rebinding a
+ character to a different command function. The bindings of all
+ keys are recorded in the keymaps (q.v.). *Note Keymaps::.
+
+Blank Lines
+ Blank lines are lines that contain only whitespace. Emacs has
+ several commands for operating on the blank lines in a buffer.
+
+Buffer
+ The buffer is the basic editing unit; one buffer corresponds to one
+ piece of text being edited. You can have several buffers, but at
+ any time you are editing only one, the `selected' buffer, though
+ several buffers can be visible when you are using multiple
+ windows. *Note Buffers::.
+
+Buffer Selection History
+ Emacs keeps a buffer selection history which records how recently
+ each Emacs buffer was selected. Emacs uses this list when
+ choosing a buffer to select. *Note Buffers::.
+
+C-
+ `C' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for Control.
+ *Note C-: Keystrokes.
+
+C-M-
+ `C-M-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for
+ Control-Meta. *Note C-M-: Keystrokes.
+
+Case Conversion
+ Case conversion means changing text from upper case to lower case
+ or vice versa. *Note Case::, for the commands for case conversion.
+
+Characters
+ Characters form the contents of an Emacs buffer; also, Emacs
+ commands are invoked by keys (q.v.), which are sequences of one or
+ more characters. *Note Keystrokes::.
+
+Command
+ A command is a Lisp function specially defined to be able to serve
+ as a key binding in Emacs. When you type a key (q.v.), Emacs
+ looks up its binding (q.v.) in the relevant keymaps (q.v.) to find
+ the command to run. *Note Commands::.
+
+Command Name
+ A command name is the name of a Lisp symbol which is a command
+ (*note Commands::). You can invoke any command by its name using
+ `M-x' (*note M-x::).
+
+Comments
+ A comment is text in a program which is intended only for the
+ people reading the program, and is marked specially so that it
+ will be ignored when the program is loaded or compiled. Emacs
+ offers special commands for creating, aligning, and killing
+ comments. *Note Comments::.
+
+Compilation
+ Compilation is the process of creating an executable program from
+ source code. Emacs has commands for compiling files of Emacs Lisp
+ code (*note Lisp Libraries::) and programs in C and other languages
+ (*note Compilation::).
+
+Complete Key
+ A complete key is a character or sequence of characters which,
+ when typed by the user, fully specifies one action to be performed
+ by Emacs. For example, `X' and `Control-f' and `Control-x m' are
+ keys. Keys derive their meanings from being bound (q.v.) to
+ commands (q.v.). Thus, `X' is conventionally bound to a command
+ to insert `X' in the buffer; `C-x m' is conventionally bound to a
+ command to begin composing a mail message. *Note Keystrokes::.
+
+Completion
+ When Emacs automatically fills an abbreviation for a name into the
+ entire name, that process is called completion. Completion is
+ done for minibuffer (q.v.) arguments when the set of possible
+ valid inputs is known; for example, on command names, buffer
+ names, and file names. Completion occurs when you type <TAB>,
+ <SPC>, or <RET>. *Note Completion::.
+
+Continuation Line
+ When a line of text is longer than the width of the frame, it
+ takes up more than one screen line when displayed. We say that the
+ text line is continued, and all screen lines used for it after the
+ first are called continuation lines. *Note Continuation: Basic.
+
+Control-Character
+ ASCII characters with octal codes 0 through 037, and also code
+ 0177, do not have graphic images assigned to them. These are the
+ control characters. Any control character can be typed by holding
+ down the <CTRL> key and typing some other character; some have
+ special keys on the keyboard. <RET>, <TAB>, <ESC>, <LFD>, and
+ <DEL> are all control characters. *Note Keystrokes::.
+
+Copyleft
+ A copyleft is a notice giving the public legal permission to
+ redistribute a program or other work of art. Copylefts are used
+ by leftists to enrich the public just as copyrights are used by
+ rightists to gain power over the public.
+
+Current Buffer
+ The current buffer in Emacs is the Emacs buffer on which most
+ editing commands operate. You can select any Emacs buffer as the
+ current one. *Note Buffers::.
+
+Current Line
+ The line point is on (*note Point::).
+
+Current Paragraph
+ The paragraph that point is in. If point is between paragraphs,
+ the current paragraph is the one that follows point. *Note
+ Paragraphs::.
+
+Current Defun
+ The defun (q.v.) that point is in. If point is between defuns, the
+ current defun is the one that follows point. *Note Defuns::.
+
+Cursor
+ The cursor is the rectangle on the screen which indicates the
+ position called point (q.v.) at which insertion and deletion takes
+ place. The cursor is on or under the character that follows
+ point. Often people speak of `the cursor' when, strictly
+ speaking, they mean `point'. *Note Cursor: Basic.
+
+Customization
+ Customization is making minor changes in the way Emacs works. It
+ is often done by setting variables (*note Variables::) or by
+ rebinding keys (*note Keymaps::).
+
+Default Argument
+ The default for an argument is the value that is used if you do not
+ specify one. When Emacs prompts you in the minibuffer for an
+ argument, the default argument is used if you just type <RET>.
+ *Note Minibuffer::.
+
+Default Directory
+ When you specify a file name that does not start with `/' or `~',
+ it is interpreted relative to the current buffer's default
+ directory. *Note Default Directory: Minibuffer File.
+
+Defun
+ A defun is a list at the top level of parenthesis or bracket
+ structure in a program. It is so named because most such lists in
+ Lisp programs are calls to the Lisp function `defun'. *Note
+ Defuns::.
+
+<DEL>
+ The <DEL> character runs the command that deletes one character of
+ text. *Note DEL: Basic.
+
+Deletion
+ Deleting text means erasing it without saving it. Emacs deletes
+ text only when it is expected not to be worth saving (all
+ whitespace, or only one character). The alternative is killing
+ (q.v.). *Note Deletion: Killing.
+
+Deletion of Files
+ Deleting a file means removing it from the file system. *Note
+ Misc File Ops::.
+
+Deletion of Messages
+ Deleting a message means flagging it to be eliminated from your
+ mail file. Until the mail file is expunged, you can undo this by
+ undeleting the message.
+
+Deletion of Frames
+ When working under the multi-frame X-based version of XEmacs, you
+ can delete individual frames using the Close menu item from the
+ File menu.
+
+Deletion of Windows
+ When you delete a subwindow of an Emacs frame, you eliminate it
+ from the frame. Other windows expand to use up the space. The
+ deleted window can never come back, but no actual text is lost.
+ *Note Windows::.
+
+Directory
+ Files in the Unix file system are grouped into file directories.
+ *Note Directories: ListDir.
+
+Dired
+ Dired is the Emacs facility that displays the contents of a file
+ directory and allows you to "edit the directory", performing
+ operations on the files in the directory. *Note Dired::.
+
+Disabled Command
+ A disabled command is one that you may not run without special
+ confirmation. Commands are usually disabled because they are
+ confusing for beginning users. *Note Disabling::.
+
+Dribble File
+ A file into which Emacs writes all the characters that the user
+ types on the keyboard. Dribble files are used to make a record for
+ debugging Emacs bugs. Emacs does not make a dribble file unless
+ you tell it to. *Note Bugs::.
+
+Echo Area
+ The area at the bottom of the Emacs frame which is used for
+ echoing the arguments to commands, for asking questions, and for
+ printing brief messages (including error messages). *Note Echo
+ Area::.
+
+Echoing
+ Echoing refers to acknowledging the receipt of commands by
+ displaying them (in the echo area). Emacs never echoes
+ single-character keys; longer keys echo only if you pause while
+ typing them.
+
+Error
+ An error occurs when an Emacs command cannot execute in the current
+ circumstances. When an error occurs, execution of the command
+ stops (unless the command has been programmed to do otherwise) and
+ Emacs reports the error by printing an error message (q.v.).
+ Type-ahead is discarded. Then Emacs is ready to read another
+ editing command.
+
+Error Messages
+ Error messages are single lines of output printed by Emacs when the
+ user asks for something impossible to do (such as killing text
+ forward when point is at the end of the buffer). They appear in
+ the echo area, accompanied by a beep.
+
+<ESC>
+ <ESC> is a character used as a prefix for typing Meta characters on
+ keyboards lacking a <META> key. Unlike the <META> key (which,
+ like the <SHIFT> key, is held down while another character is
+ typed), the <ESC> key is pressed and released, and applies to the
+ next character typed.
+
+Fill Prefix
+ The fill prefix is a string that Emacs enters at the beginning of
+ each line when it performs filling. It is not regarded as part of
+ the text to be filled. *Note Filling::.
+
+Filling
+ Filling text means moving text from line to line so that all the
+ lines are approximately the same length. *Note Filling::.
+
+Frame
+ When running Emacs on a TTY terminal, "frame" means the terminal's
+ screen. When running Emacs under X, you can have multiple frames,
+ each corresponding to a top-level X window and each looking like
+ the screen on a TTY. Each frame contains one or more
+ non-overlapping Emacs windows (possibly with associated
+ scrollbars, under X), an echo area, and (under X) possibly a
+ menubar, toolbar, and/or gutter.
+
+Global
+ Global means `independent of the current environment; in effect
+ throughout Emacs'. It is the opposite of local (q.v.). Examples
+ of the use of `global' appear below.
+
+Global Abbrev
+ A global definition of an abbrev (q.v.) is effective in all major
+ modes that do not have local (q.v.) definitions for the same
+ abbrev. *Note Abbrevs::.
+
+Global Keymap
+ The global keymap (q.v.) contains key bindings that are in effect
+ unless local key bindings in a major mode's local keymap (q.v.)
+ override them.*Note Keymaps::.
+
+Global Substitution
+ Global substitution means replacing each occurrence of one string
+ by another string through a large amount of text. *Note Replace::.
+
+Global Variable
+ The global value of a variable (q.v.) takes effect in all buffers
+ that do not have their own local (q.v.) values for the variable.
+ *Note Variables::.
+
+Graphic Character
+ Graphic characters are those assigned pictorial images rather than
+ just names. All the non-Meta (q.v.) characters except for the
+ Control (q.v.) character are graphic characters. These include
+ letters, digits, punctuation, and spaces; they do not include
+ <RET> or <ESC>. In Emacs, typing a graphic character inserts that
+ character (in ordinary editing modes). *Note Basic Editing: Basic.
+
+Grinding
+ Grinding means adjusting the indentation in a program to fit the
+ nesting structure. *Note Grinding: Indentation.
+
+Hardcopy
+ Hardcopy means printed output. Emacs has commands for making
+ printed listings of text in Emacs buffers. *Note Hardcopy::.
+
+<HELP>
+ You can type <HELP> at any time to ask what options you have, or
+ to ask what any command does. <HELP> is really `Control-h'.
+ *Note Help::.
+
+Inbox
+ An inbox is a file in which mail is delivered by the operating
+ system. Some mail handlers transfers mail from inboxes to mail
+ files (q.v.) in which the mail is then stored permanently or until
+ explicitly deleted.
+
+Indentation
+ Indentation means blank space at the beginning of a line. Most
+ programming languages have conventions for using indentation to
+ illuminate the structure of the program, and Emacs has special
+ features to help you set up the correct indentation. *Note
+ Indentation::.
+
+Insertion
+ Insertion means copying text into the buffer, either from the
+ keyboard or from some other place in Emacs.
+
+Justification
+ Justification means adding extra spaces to lines of text to make
+ them come exactly to a specified width. *Note Justification:
+ Filling.
+
+Keyboard Macros
+ Keyboard macros are a way of defining new Emacs commands from
+ sequences of existing ones, with no need to write a Lisp program.
+ *Note Keyboard Macros::.
+
+Key
+ A key is a sequence of characters that, when input to Emacs,
+ specify or begin to specify a single action for Emacs to perform.
+ That is, the sequence is considered a single unit. If the key is
+ enough to specify one action, it is a complete key (q.v.); if it
+ is less than enough, it is a prefix key (q.v.). *Note
+ Keystrokes::.
+
+Keymap
+ The keymap is the data structure that records the bindings (q.v.)
+ of keys to the commands that they run. For example, the keymap
+ binds the character `C-n' to the command function `next-line'.
+ *Note Keymaps::.
+
+Kill Ring
+ The kill ring is the place where all text you have killed recently
+ is saved. You can re-insert any of the killed text still in the
+ ring; this is called yanking (q.v.). *Note Yanking::.
+
+Killing
+ Killing means erasing text and saving it on the kill ring so it
+ can be yanked (q.v.) later. Some other systems call this
+ "cutting." Most Emacs commands to erase text do killing, as
+ opposed to deletion (q.v.). *Note Killing::.
+
+Killing Jobs
+ Killing a job (such as, an invocation of Emacs) means making it
+ cease to exist. Any data within it, if not saved in a file, is
+ lost. *Note Exiting::.
+
+List
+ A list is, approximately, a text string beginning with an open
+ parenthesis and ending with the matching close parenthesis. In C
+ mode and other non-Lisp modes, groupings surrounded by other kinds
+ of matched delimiters appropriate to the language, such as braces,
+ are also considered lists. Emacs has special commands for many
+ operations on lists. *Note Lists::.
+
+Local
+ Local means `in effect only in a particular context'; the relevant
+ kind of context is a particular function execution, a particular
+ buffer, or a particular major mode. Local is the opposite of
+ `global' (q.v.). Specific uses of `local' in Emacs terminology
+ appear below.
+
+Local Abbrev
+ A local abbrev definition is effective only if a particular major
+ mode is selected. In that major mode, it overrides any global
+ definition for the same abbrev. *Note Abbrevs::.
+
+Local Keymap
+ A local keymap is used in a particular major mode; the key bindings
+ (q.v.) in the current local keymap override global bindings of the
+ same keys. *Note Keymaps::.
+
+Local Variable
+ A local value of a variable (q.v.) applies to only one buffer.
+ *Note Locals::.
+
+M-
+ `M-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for <META>, one
+ of the modifier keys that can accompany any character. *Note
+ Keystrokes::.
+
+M-C-
+ `M-C-' in the name of a character is an abbreviation for
+ Control-Meta; it means the same thing as `C-M-'. If your terminal
+ lacks a real <META> key, you type a Control-Meta character by
+ typing <ESC> and then typing the corresponding Control character.
+ *Note C-M-: Keystrokes.
+
+M-x
+ `M-x' is the key which is used to call an Emacs command by name.
+ You use it to call commands that are not bound to keys. *Note
+ M-x::.
+
+Mail
+ Mail means messages sent from one user to another through the
+ computer system, to be read at the recipient's convenience. Emacs
+ has commands for composing and sending mail, and for reading and
+ editing the mail you have received. *Note Sending Mail::.
+
+Major Mode
+ The major modes are a mutually exclusive set of options each of
+ which configures Emacs for editing a certain sort of text.
+ Ideally, each programming language has its own major mode. *Note
+ Major Modes::.
+
+Mark
+ The mark points to a position in the text. It specifies one end
+ of the region (q.v.), point being the other end. Many commands
+ operate on the whole region, that is, all the text from point to
+ the mark. *Note Mark::.
+
+Mark Ring
+ The mark ring is used to hold several recent previous locations of
+ the mark, just in case you want to move back to them. *Note Mark
+ Ring::.
+
+Message
+ See `mail'.
+
+Meta
+ Meta is the name of a modifier bit which a command character may
+ have. It is present in a character if the character is typed with
+ the <META> key held down. Such characters are given names that
+ start with `Meta-'. For example, `Meta-<' is typed by holding down
+ <META> and at the same time typing `<' (which itself is done, on
+ most terminals, by holding down <SHIFT> and typing `,'). *Note
+ Meta: Keystrokes.
+
+Meta Character
+ A Meta character is one whose character code includes the Meta bit.
+
+Minibuffer
+ The minibuffer is the window that Emacs displays inside the echo
+ area (q.v.) when it prompts you for arguments to commands. *Note
+ Minibuffer::.
+
+Minor Mode
+ A minor mode is an optional feature of Emacs which can be switched
+ on or off independent of the major mode. Each minor mode has a
+ command to turn it on or off. *Note Minor Modes::.
+
+Mode Line
+ The mode line is the line at the bottom of each text window (q.v.),
+ which gives status information on the buffer displayed in that
+ window. *Note Mode Line::.
+
+Modified Buffer
+ A buffer (q.v.) is modified if its text has been changed since the
+ last time the buffer was saved (or since it was created, if it has
+ never been saved). *Note Saving::.
+
+Moving Text
+ Moving text means erasing it from one place and inserting it in
+ another. This is done by killing (q.v.) and then yanking (q.v.).
+ *Note Killing::.
+
+Named Mark
+ A named mark is a register (q.v.) in its role of recording a
+ location in text so that you can move point to that location.
+ *Note Registers::.
+
+Narrowing
+ Narrowing means creating a restriction (q.v.) that limits editing
+ in the current buffer to only a part of the text in the buffer.
+ Text outside that part is inaccessible to the user until the
+ boundaries are widened again, but it is still there, and saving
+ the file saves the invisible text. *Note Narrowing::.
+
+Newline
+ <LFD> characters in the buffer terminate lines of text and are
+ called newlines. *Note Newline: Keystrokes.
+
+Numeric Argument
+ A numeric argument is a number, specified before a command, to
+ change the effect of the command. Often the numeric argument
+ serves as a repeat count. *Note Arguments::.
+
+Option
+ An option is a variable (q.v.) that allows you to customize Emacs
+ by giving it a new value. *Note Variables::.
+
+Overwrite Mode
+ Overwrite mode is a minor mode. When it is enabled, ordinary text
+ characters replace the existing text after point rather than
+ pushing it to the right. *Note Minor Modes::.
+
+Page
+ A page is a unit of text, delimited by formfeed characters (ASCII
+ Control-L, code 014) coming at the beginning of a line. Some Emacs
+ commands are provided for moving over and operating on pages.
+ *Note Pages::.
+
+Paragraphs
+ Paragraphs are the medium-size unit of English text. There are
+ special Emacs commands for moving over and operating on paragraphs.
+ *Note Paragraphs::.
+
+Parsing
+ We say that Emacs parses words or expressions in the text being
+ edited. Really, all it knows how to do is find the other end of a
+ word or expression. *Note Syntax::.
+
+Point
+ Point is the place in the buffer at which insertion and deletion
+ occur. Point is considered to be between two characters, not at
+ one character. The terminal's cursor (q.v.) indicates the
+ location of point. *Note Point: Basic.
+
+Prefix Key
+ A prefix key is a key (q.v.) whose sole function is to introduce a
+ set of multi-character keys. `Control-x' is an example of a prefix
+ key; any two-character sequence starting with `C-x' is also a
+ legitimate key. *Note Keystrokes::.
+
+Prompt
+ A prompt is text printed to ask the user for input. Printing a
+ prompt is called prompting. Emacs prompts always appear in the
+ echo area (q.v.). One kind of prompting happens when the
+ minibuffer is used to read an argument (*note Minibuffer::); the
+ echoing which happens when you pause in the middle of typing a
+ multi-character key is also a kind of prompting (*note Echo
+ Area::).
+
+Quitting
+ Quitting means cancelling a partially typed command or a running
+ command, using `C-g'. *Note Quitting::.
+
+Quoting
+ Quoting means depriving a character of its usual special
+ significance. In Emacs this is usually done with `Control-q'.
+ What constitutes special significance depends on the context and
+ on convention. For example, an "ordinary" character as an Emacs
+ command inserts itself; so in this context, a special character is
+ any character that does not normally insert itself (such as <DEL>,
+ for example), and quoting it makes it insert itself as if it were
+ not special. Not all contexts allow quoting. *Note Quoting:
+ Basic.
+
+Read-only Buffer
+ A read-only buffer is one whose text you are not allowed to change.
+ Normally Emacs makes buffers read-only when they contain text which
+ has a special significance to Emacs, such as Dired buffers.
+ Visiting a file that is write-protected also makes a read-only
+ buffer. *Note Buffers::.
+
+Recursive Editing Level
+ A recursive editing level is a state in which part of the
+ execution of a command involves asking the user to edit some text.
+ This text may or may not be the same as the text to which the
+ command was applied. The mode line indicates recursive editing
+ levels with square brackets (`[' and `]'). *Note Recursive Edit::.
+
+Redisplay
+ Redisplay is the process of correcting the image on the screen to
+ correspond to changes that have been made in the text being edited.
+ *Note Redisplay: Frame.
+
+Regexp
+ See `regular expression'.
+
+Region
+ The region is the text between point (q.v.) and the mark (q.v.).
+ Many commands operate on the text of the region. *Note Region:
+ Mark.
+
+Registers
+ Registers are named slots in which text or buffer positions or
+ rectangles can be saved for later use. *Note Registers::.
+
+Regular Expression
+ A regular expression is a pattern that can match various text
+ strings; for example, `l[0-9]+' matches `l' followed by one or more
+ digits. *Note Regexps::.
+
+Replacement
+ See `global substitution'.
+
+Restriction
+ A buffer's restriction is the amount of text, at the beginning or
+ the end of the buffer, that is temporarily invisible and
+ inaccessible. Giving a buffer a nonzero amount of restriction is
+ called narrowing (q.v.). *Note Narrowing::.
+
+<RET>
+ <RET> is the character than runs the command to insert a newline
+ into the text. It is also used to terminate most arguments read
+ in the minibuffer (q.v.). *Note Return: Keystrokes.
+
+Saving
+ Saving a buffer means copying its text into the file that was
+ visited (q.v.) in that buffer. To actually change a file you have
+ edited in Emacs, you have to save it. *Note Saving::.
+
+Scrolling
+ Scrolling means shifting the text in the Emacs window to make a
+ different part of the buffer visible. *Note Scrolling: Display.
+
+Searching
+ Searching means moving point to the next occurrence of a specified
+ string. *Note Search::.
+
+Selecting
+ Selecting a buffer means making it the current (q.v.) buffer.
+ *Note Selecting: Buffers.
+
+Self-documentation
+ Self-documentation is the feature of Emacs which can tell you what
+ any command does, or can give you a list of all commands related
+ to a topic you specify. You ask for self-documentation with the
+ help character, `C-h'. *Note Help::.
+
+Sentences
+ Emacs has commands for moving by or killing by sentences. *Note
+ Sentences::.
+
+Sexp
+ An sexp (short for `s-expression,' itself short for `symbolic
+ expression') is the basic syntactic unit of Lisp in its textual
+ form: either a list, or Lisp atom. Many Emacs commands operate on
+ sexps. The term `sexp' is generalized to languages other than
+ Lisp to mean a syntactically recognizable expression. *Note
+ Sexps: Lists.
+
+Simultaneous Editing
+ Simultaneous editing means two users modifying the same file at
+ once. If simultaneous editing is not detected, you may lose your
+ work. Emacs detects all cases of simultaneous editing and warns
+ the user to investigate them. *Note Simultaneous Editing:
+ Interlocking.
+
+String
+ A string is a kind of Lisp data object which contains a sequence of
+ characters. Many Emacs variables are intended to have strings as
+ values. The Lisp syntax for a string consists of the characters in
+ the string with a `"' before and another `"' after. Write a `"'
+ that is part of the string as `\"' and a `\' that is part of the
+ string as `\\'. You can include all other characters, including
+ newline, just by writing them inside the string. You can also
+ include escape sequences as in C, such as `\n' for newline or
+ `\241' using an octal character code.
+
+String Substitution
+ See `global substitution'.
+
+Syntax Table
+ The syntax table tells Emacs which characters are part of a word,
+ which characters balance each other like parentheses, etc. *Note
+ Syntax::.
+
+Tag Table
+ A tag table is a file that serves as an index to the function
+ definitions in one or more other files. *Note Tags::.
+
+Termscript File
+ A termscript file contains a record of all characters Emacs sent to
+ the terminal. It is used for tracking down bugs in Emacs
+ redisplay. Emacs does not make a termscript file unless
+ explicitly instructed to do so. *Note Bugs::.
+
+Text
+ Text has two meanings (*note Text::):
+
+ * Data consisting of a sequence of characters, as opposed to
+ binary numbers, images, graphics commands, executable
+ programs, and the like. The contents of an Emacs buffer are
+ always text in this sense.
+
+ * Data consisting of written human language, as opposed to
+ programs, or something that follows the stylistic conventions
+ of human language.
+
+Top Level
+ Top level is the normal state of Emacs, in which you are editing
+ the text of the file you have visited. You are at top level
+ whenever you are not in a recursive editing level (q.v.) or the
+ minibuffer (q.v.), and not in the middle of a command. You can
+ get back to top level by aborting (q.v.) and quitting (q.v.).
+ *Note Quitting::.
+
+Transposition
+ Transposing two units of text means putting each one into the place
+ formerly occupied by the other. There are Emacs commands to
+ transpose two adjacent characters, words, sexps (q.v.), or lines
+ (*note Transpose::).
+
+Truncation
+ Truncating text lines in the display means leaving out any text on
+ a line that does not fit within the right margin of the window
+ displaying it. See also `continuation line'. *Note Truncation:
+ Basic.
+
+Undoing
+ Undoing means making your previous editing go in reverse, bringing
+ back the text that existed earlier in the editing session. *Note
+ Undo::.
+
+Variable
+ A variable is Lisp object that can store an arbitrary value.
+ Emacs uses some variables for internal purposes, and has others
+ (known as `options' (q.v.)) you can set to control the behavior of
+ Emacs. The variables used in Emacs that you are likely to be
+ interested in are listed in the Variables Index of this manual.
+ *Note Variables::, for information on variables.
+
+Visiting
+ Visiting a file means loading its contents into a buffer (q.v.)
+ where they can be edited. *Note Visiting::.
+
+Whitespace
+ Whitespace is any run of consecutive formatting characters (spaces,
+ tabs, newlines, and backspaces).
+
+Widening
+ Widening is removing any restriction (q.v.) on the current buffer;
+ it is the opposite of narrowing (q.v.). *Note Narrowing::.
+
+Window
+ Emacs divides the frame into one or more windows, each of which can
+ display the contents of one buffer (q.v.) at any time. *Note
+ Frame::, for basic information on how Emacs uses the frame. *Note
+ Windows::, for commands to control the use of windows. Note that if
+ you are running Emacs under X, terminology can be confusing: Each
+ Emacs frame occupies a separate X window and can, in turn, be
+ divided into different subwindows.
+
+Word Abbrev
+ Synonymous with `abbrev'.
+
+Word Search
+ Word search is searching for a sequence of words, considering the
+ punctuation between them as insignificant. *Note Word Search::.
+
+Yanking
+ Yanking means reinserting text previously killed. It can be used
+ to undo a mistaken kill, or for copying or moving text. Some other
+ systems call this "pasting". *Note Yanking::.
projects / chise / xemacs-chise.git / blobdiff