XEmacs 21.2.27 "Hera".

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* Lispref: (lispref).           XEmacs Lisp Reference Manual.
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   Edition History:

   GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual Second Edition (v2.01), May 1993 GNU
Emacs Lisp Reference Manual Further Revised (v2.02), August 1993 Lucid
Emacs Lisp Reference Manual (for 19.10) First Edition, March 1994
XEmacs Lisp Programmer's Manual (for 19.12) Second Edition, April 1995
GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual v2.4, June 1995 XEmacs Lisp
Programmer's Manual (for 19.13) Third Edition, July 1995 XEmacs Lisp
Reference Manual (for 19.14 and 20.0) v3.1, March 1996 XEmacs Lisp
Reference Manual (for 19.15 and 20.1, 20.2, 20.3) v3.2, April, May,
November 1997 XEmacs Lisp Reference Manual (for 21.0) v3.3, April 1998

   Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Free Software
Foundation, Inc.  Copyright (C) 1994, 1995 Sun Microsystems, Inc.
Copyright (C) 1995, 1996 Ben Wing.

   Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the
entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a
permission notice identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a
translation approved by the Foundation.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the section entitled "GNU General Public License" is included
exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting
derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice
identical to this one.

   Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions, except that the section entitled "GNU General Public License"
may be included in a translation approved by the Free Software
Foundation instead of in the original English.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Error Symbols,  Prev: Handling Errors,  Up: Errors

Error Symbols and Condition Names
.................................

   When you signal an error, you specify an "error symbol" to specify
the kind of error you have in mind.  Each error has one and only one
error symbol to categorize it.  This is the finest classification of
errors defined by the XEmacs Lisp language.

   These narrow classifications are grouped into a hierarchy of wider
classes called "error conditions", identified by "condition names".
The narrowest such classes belong to the error symbols themselves: each
error symbol is also a condition name.  There are also condition names
for more extensive classes, up to the condition name `error' which
takes in all kinds of errors.  Thus, each error has one or more
condition names: `error', the error symbol if that is distinct from
`error', and perhaps some intermediate classifications.

   In other words, each error condition "inherits" from another error
condition, with `error' sitting at the top of the inheritance hierarchy.

 - Function: define-error error-symbol error-message &optional
          inherits-from
     This function defines a new error, denoted by ERROR-SYMBOL.
     ERROR-MESSAGE is an informative message explaining the error, and
     will be printed out when an unhandled error occurs.  ERROR-SYMBOL
     is a sub-error of INHERITS-FROM (which defaults to `error').

     `define-error' internally works by putting on ERROR-SYMBOL an
     `error-message' property whose value is ERROR-MESSAGE, and an
     `error-conditions' property that is a list of ERROR-SYMBOL
     followed by each of its super-errors, up to and including `error'.
     You will sometimes see code that sets this up directly rather than
     calling `define-error', but you should _not_ do this yourself,
     unless you wish to maintain compatibility with FSF Emacs, which
     does not provide `define-error'.

   Here is how we define a new error symbol, `new-error', that belongs
to a range of errors called `my-own-errors':

     (define-error 'my-own-errors "A whole range of errors" 'error)
     (define-error 'new-error "A new error" 'my-own-errors)

`new-error' has three condition names: `new-error', the narrowest
classification; `my-own-errors', which we imagine is a wider
classification; and `error', which is the widest of all.

   Note that it is not legal to try to define an error unless its
super-error is also defined.  For instance, attempting to define
`new-error' before `my-own-errors' are defined will signal an error.

   The error string should start with a capital letter but it should
not end with a period.  This is for consistency with the rest of Emacs.

   Naturally, XEmacs will never signal `new-error' on its own; only an
explicit call to `signal' (*note Signaling Errors::) in your code can
do this:

     (signal 'new-error '(x y))
          error--> A new error: x, y

   This error can be handled through any of the three condition names.
This example handles `new-error' and any other errors in the class
`my-own-errors':

     (condition-case foo
         (bar nil t)
       (my-own-errors nil))

   The significant way that errors are classified is by their condition
names--the names used to match errors with handlers.  An error symbol
serves only as a convenient way to specify the intended error message
and list of condition names.  It would be cumbersome to give `signal' a
list of condition names rather than one error symbol.

   By contrast, using only error symbols without condition names would
seriously decrease the power of `condition-case'.  Condition names make
it possible to categorize errors at various levels of generality when
you write an error handler.  Using error symbols alone would eliminate
all but the narrowest level of classification.

   *Note Standard Errors::, for a list of all the standard error symbols
and their conditions.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Cleanups,  Prev: Errors,  Up: Nonlocal Exits

Cleaning Up from Nonlocal Exits
-------------------------------

   The `unwind-protect' construct is essential whenever you temporarily
put a data structure in an inconsistent state; it permits you to ensure
the data are consistent in the event of an error or throw.

 - Special Form: unwind-protect body cleanup-forms...
     `unwind-protect' executes the BODY with a guarantee that the
     CLEANUP-FORMS will be evaluated if control leaves BODY, no matter
     how that happens.  The BODY may complete normally, or execute a
     `throw' out of the `unwind-protect', or cause an error; in all
     cases, the CLEANUP-FORMS will be evaluated.

     If the BODY forms finish normally, `unwind-protect' returns the
     value of the last BODY form, after it evaluates the CLEANUP-FORMS.
     If the BODY forms do not finish, `unwind-protect' does not return
     any value in the normal sense.

     Only the BODY is actually protected by the `unwind-protect'.  If
     any of the CLEANUP-FORMS themselves exits nonlocally (e.g., via a
     `throw' or an error), `unwind-protect' is _not_ guaranteed to
     evaluate the rest of them.  If the failure of one of the
     CLEANUP-FORMS has the potential to cause trouble, then protect it
     with another `unwind-protect' around that form.

     The number of currently active `unwind-protect' forms counts,
     together with the number of local variable bindings, against the
     limit `max-specpdl-size' (*note Local Variables::).

   For example, here we make an invisible buffer for temporary use, and
make sure to kill it before finishing:

     (save-excursion
       (let ((buffer (get-buffer-create " *temp*")))
         (set-buffer buffer)
         (unwind-protect
             BODY
           (kill-buffer buffer))))

You might think that we could just as well write `(kill-buffer
(current-buffer))' and dispense with the variable `buffer'.  However,
the way shown above is safer, if BODY happens to get an error after
switching to a different buffer!  (Alternatively, you could write
another `save-excursion' around the body, to ensure that the temporary
buffer becomes current in time to kill it.)

   Here is an actual example taken from the file `ftp.el'.  It creates
a process (*note Processes::) to try to establish a connection to a
remote machine.  As the function `ftp-login' is highly susceptible to
numerous problems that the writer of the function cannot anticipate, it
is protected with a form that guarantees deletion of the process in the
event of failure.  Otherwise, XEmacs might fill up with useless
subprocesses.

     (let ((win nil))
       (unwind-protect
           (progn
             (setq process (ftp-setup-buffer host file))
             (if (setq win (ftp-login process host user password))
                 (message "Logged in")
               (error "Ftp login failed")))
         (or win (and process (delete-process process)))))

   This example actually has a small bug: if the user types `C-g' to
quit, and the quit happens immediately after the function
`ftp-setup-buffer' returns but before the variable `process' is set,
the process will not be killed.  There is no easy way to fix this bug,
but at least it is very unlikely.

   Here is another example which uses `unwind-protect' to make sure to
kill a temporary buffer.  In this example, the value returned by
`unwind-protect' is used.

     (defun shell-command-string (cmd)
       "Return the output of the shell command CMD, as a string."
       (save-excursion
         (set-buffer (generate-new-buffer " OS*cmd"))
         (shell-command cmd t)
         (unwind-protect
             (buffer-string)
           (kill-buffer (current-buffer)))))

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Variables,  Next: Functions,  Prev: Control Structures,  Up: Top

Variables
*********

   A "variable" is a name used in a program to stand for a value.
Nearly all programming languages have variables of some sort.  In the
text of a Lisp program, variables are written using the syntax for
symbols.

   In Lisp, unlike most programming languages, programs are represented
primarily as Lisp objects and only secondarily as text.  The Lisp
objects used for variables are symbols: the symbol name is the variable
name, and the variable's value is stored in the value cell of the
symbol.  The use of a symbol as a variable is independent of its use as
a function name.  *Note Symbol Components::.

   The Lisp objects that constitute a Lisp program determine the textual
form of the program--it is simply the read syntax for those Lisp
objects.  This is why, for example, a variable in a textual Lisp program
is written using the read syntax for the symbol that represents the
variable.

* Menu:

* Global Variables::      Variable values that exist permanently, everywhere.
* Constant Variables::    Certain "variables" have values that never change.
* Local Variables::       Variable values that exist only temporarily.
* Void Variables::        Symbols that lack values.
* Defining Variables::    A definition says a symbol is used as a variable.
* Accessing Variables::   Examining values of variables whose names
                            are known only at run time.
* Setting Variables::     Storing new values in variables.
* Variable Scoping::      How Lisp chooses among local and global values.
* Buffer-Local Variables::  Variable values in effect only in one buffer.
* Variable Aliases::      Making one variable point to another.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Global Variables,  Next: Constant Variables,  Up: Variables

Global Variables
================

   The simplest way to use a variable is "globally".  This means that
the variable has just one value at a time, and this value is in effect
(at least for the moment) throughout the Lisp system.  The value remains
in effect until you specify a new one.  When a new value replaces the
old one, no trace of the old value remains in the variable.

   You specify a value for a symbol with `setq'.  For example,

     (setq x '(a b))

gives the variable `x' the value `(a b)'.  Note that `setq' does not
evaluate its first argument, the name of the variable, but it does
evaluate the second argument, the new value.

   Once the variable has a value, you can refer to it by using the
symbol by itself as an expression.  Thus,

     x => (a b)

assuming the `setq' form shown above has already been executed.

   If you do another `setq', the new value replaces the old one:

     x
          => (a b)
     (setq x 4)
          => 4
     x
          => 4

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Constant Variables,  Next: Local Variables,  Prev: Global Variables,  Up: Variables

Variables That Never Change
===========================

   In XEmacs Lisp, some symbols always evaluate to themselves: the two
special symbols `nil' and `t', as well as "keyword symbols", that is,
symbols whose name begins with the character ``:''.  These symbols
cannot be rebound, nor can their value cells be changed.  An attempt to
change the value of `nil' or `t' signals a `setting-constant' error.

     nil == 'nil
          => nil
     (setq nil 500)
     error--> Attempt to set constant symbol: nil

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Local Variables,  Next: Void Variables,  Prev: Constant Variables,  Up: Variables

Local Variables
===============

   Global variables have values that last until explicitly superseded
with new values.  Sometimes it is useful to create variable values that
exist temporarily--only while within a certain part of the program.
These values are called "local", and the variables so used are called
"local variables".

   For example, when a function is called, its argument variables
receive new local values that last until the function exits.  The `let'
special form explicitly establishes new local values for specified
variables; these last until exit from the `let' form.

   Establishing a local value saves away the previous value (or lack of
one) of the variable.  When the life span of the local value is over,
the previous value is restored.  In the mean time, we say that the
previous value is "shadowed" and "not visible".  Both global and local
values may be shadowed (*note Scope::).

   If you set a variable (such as with `setq') while it is local, this
replaces the local value; it does not alter the global value, or
previous local values that are shadowed.  To model this behavior, we
speak of a "local binding" of the variable as well as a local value.

   The local binding is a conceptual place that holds a local value.
Entry to a function, or a special form such as `let', creates the local
binding; exit from the function or from the `let' removes the local
binding.  As long as the local binding lasts, the variable's value is
stored within it.  Use of `setq' or `set' while there is a local
binding stores a different value into the local binding; it does not
create a new binding.

   We also speak of the "global binding", which is where (conceptually)
the global value is kept.

   A variable can have more than one local binding at a time (for
example, if there are nested `let' forms that bind it).  In such a
case, the most recently created local binding that still exists is the
"current binding" of the variable.  (This is called "dynamic scoping";
see *Note Variable Scoping::.)  If there are no local bindings, the
variable's global binding is its current binding.  We also call the
current binding the "most-local existing binding", for emphasis.
Ordinary evaluation of a symbol always returns the value of its current
binding.

   The special forms `let' and `let*' exist to create local bindings.

 - Special Form: let (bindings...) forms...
     This special form binds variables according to BINDINGS and then
     evaluates all of the FORMS in textual order.  The `let'-form
     returns the value of the last form in FORMS.

     Each of the BINDINGS is either (i) a symbol, in which case that
     symbol is bound to `nil'; or (ii) a list of the form `(SYMBOL
     VALUE-FORM)', in which case SYMBOL is bound to the result of
     evaluating VALUE-FORM.  If VALUE-FORM is omitted, `nil' is used.

     All of the VALUE-FORMs in BINDINGS are evaluated in the order they
     appear and _before_ any of the symbols are bound.  Here is an
     example of this: `Z' is bound to the old value of `Y', which is 2,
     not the new value, 1.

          (setq Y 2)
               => 2
          (let ((Y 1)
                (Z Y))
            (list Y Z))
               => (1 2)

 - Special Form: let* (bindings...) forms...
     This special form is like `let', but it binds each variable right
     after computing its local value, before computing the local value
     for the next variable.  Therefore, an expression in BINDINGS can
     reasonably refer to the preceding symbols bound in this `let*'
     form.  Compare the following example with the example above for
     `let'.

          (setq Y 2)
               => 2
          (let* ((Y 1)
                 (Z Y))    ; Use the just-established value of `Y'.
            (list Y Z))
               => (1 1)

   Here is a complete list of the other facilities that create local
bindings:

   * Function calls (*note Functions::).

   * Macro calls (*note Macros::).

   * `condition-case' (*note Errors::).

   Variables can also have buffer-local bindings (*note Buffer-Local
Variables::).  These kinds of bindings work somewhat like ordinary local
bindings, but they are localized depending on "where" you are in Emacs,
rather than localized in time.

 - Variable: max-specpdl-size
     This variable defines the limit on the total number of local
     variable bindings and `unwind-protect' cleanups (*note Nonlocal
     Exits::) that are allowed before signaling an error (with data
     `"Variable binding depth exceeds max-specpdl-size"').

     This limit, with the associated error when it is exceeded, is one
     way that Lisp avoids infinite recursion on an ill-defined function.

     The default value is 600.

     `max-lisp-eval-depth' provides another limit on depth of nesting.
     *Note Eval::.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Void Variables,  Next: Defining Variables,  Prev: Local Variables,  Up: Variables

When a Variable is "Void"
=========================

   If you have never given a symbol any value as a global variable, we
say that that symbol's global value is "void".  In other words, the
symbol's value cell does not have any Lisp object in it.  If you try to
evaluate the symbol, you get a `void-variable' error rather than a
value.

   Note that a value of `nil' is not the same as void.  The symbol
`nil' is a Lisp object and can be the value of a variable just as any
other object can be; but it is _a value_.  A void variable does not
have any value.

   After you have given a variable a value, you can make it void once
more using `makunbound'.

 - Function: makunbound symbol
     This function makes the current binding of SYMBOL void.
     Subsequent attempts to use this symbol's value as a variable will
     signal the error `void-variable', unless or until you set it again.

     `makunbound' returns SYMBOL.

          (makunbound 'x)      ; Make the global value
                               ;   of `x' void.
               => x
          x
          error--> Symbol's value as variable is void: x

     If SYMBOL is locally bound, `makunbound' affects the most local
     existing binding.  This is the only way a symbol can have a void
     local binding, since all the constructs that create local bindings
     create them with values.  In this case, the voidness lasts at most
     as long as the binding does; when the binding is removed due to
     exit from the construct that made it, the previous or global
     binding is reexposed as usual, and the variable is no longer void
     unless the newly reexposed binding was void all along.

          (setq x 1)               ; Put a value in the global binding.
               => 1
          (let ((x 2))             ; Locally bind it.
            (makunbound 'x)        ; Void the local binding.
            x)
          error--> Symbol's value as variable is void: x
          x                        ; The global binding is unchanged.
               => 1
          
          (let ((x 2))             ; Locally bind it.
            (let ((x 3))           ; And again.
              (makunbound 'x)      ; Void the innermost-local binding.
              x))                  ; And refer: it's void.
          error--> Symbol's value as variable is void: x
          
          (let ((x 2))
            (let ((x 3))
              (makunbound 'x))     ; Void inner binding, then remove it.
            x)                     ; Now outer `let' binding is visible.
               => 2

   A variable that has been made void with `makunbound' is
indistinguishable from one that has never received a value and has
always been void.

   You can use the function `boundp' to test whether a variable is
currently void.

 - Function: boundp variable
     `boundp' returns `t' if VARIABLE (a symbol) is not void; more
     precisely, if its current binding is not void.  It returns `nil'
     otherwise.

          (boundp 'abracadabra)          ; Starts out void.
               => nil
          (let ((abracadabra 5))         ; Locally bind it.
            (boundp 'abracadabra))
               => t
          (boundp 'abracadabra)          ; Still globally void.
               => nil
          (setq abracadabra 5)           ; Make it globally nonvoid.
               => 5
          (boundp 'abracadabra)
               => t

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Defining Variables,  Next: Accessing Variables,  Prev: Void Variables,  Up: Variables

Defining Global Variables
=========================

   You may announce your intention to use a symbol as a global variable
with a "variable definition": a special form, either `defconst' or
`defvar'.

   In XEmacs Lisp, definitions serve three purposes.  First, they inform
people who read the code that certain symbols are _intended_ to be used
a certain way (as variables).  Second, they inform the Lisp system of
these things, supplying a value and documentation.  Third, they provide
information to utilities such as `etags' and `make-docfile', which
create data bases of the functions and variables in a program.

   The difference between `defconst' and `defvar' is primarily a matter
of intent, serving to inform human readers of whether programs will
change the variable.  XEmacs Lisp does not restrict the ways in which a
variable can be used based on `defconst' or `defvar' declarations.
However, it does make a difference for initialization: `defconst'
unconditionally initializes the variable, while `defvar' initializes it
only if it is void.

   One would expect user option variables to be defined with
`defconst', since programs do not change them.  Unfortunately, this has
bad results if the definition is in a library that is not preloaded:
`defconst' would override any prior value when the library is loaded.
Users would like to be able to set user options in their init files,
and override the default values given in the definitions.  For this
reason, user options must be defined with `defvar'.

 - Special Form: defvar symbol [value [doc-string]]
     This special form defines SYMBOL as a value and initializes it.
     The definition informs a person reading your code that SYMBOL is
     used as a variable that programs are likely to set or change.  It
     is also used for all user option variables except in the preloaded
     parts of XEmacs.  Note that SYMBOL is not evaluated; the symbol to
     be defined must appear explicitly in the `defvar'.

     If SYMBOL already has a value (i.e., it is not void), VALUE is not
     even evaluated, and SYMBOL's value remains unchanged.  If SYMBOL
     is void and VALUE is specified, `defvar' evaluates it and sets
     SYMBOL to the result.  (If VALUE is omitted, the value of SYMBOL
     is not changed in any case.)

     When you evaluate a top-level `defvar' form with `C-M-x' in Emacs
     Lisp mode (`eval-defun'), a special feature of `eval-defun'
     evaluates it as a `defconst'.  The purpose of this is to make sure
     the variable's value is reinitialized, when you ask for it
     specifically.

     If SYMBOL has a buffer-local binding in the current buffer,
     `defvar' sets the default value, not the local value.  *Note
     Buffer-Local Variables::.

     If the DOC-STRING argument appears, it specifies the documentation
     for the variable.  (This opportunity to specify documentation is
     one of the main benefits of defining the variable.)  The
     documentation is stored in the symbol's `variable-documentation'
     property.  The XEmacs help functions (*note Documentation::) look
     for this property.

     If the first character of DOC-STRING is `*', it means that this
     variable is considered a user option.  This lets users set the
     variable conveniently using the commands `set-variable' and
     `edit-options'.

     For example, this form defines `foo' but does not set its value:

          (defvar foo)
               => foo

     The following example sets the value of `bar' to `23', and gives
     it a documentation string:

          (defvar bar 23
            "The normal weight of a bar.")
               => bar

     The following form changes the documentation string for `bar',
     making it a user option, but does not change the value, since `bar'
     already has a value.  (The addition `(1+ 23)' is not even
     performed.)

          (defvar bar (1+ 23)
            "*The normal weight of a bar.")
               => bar
          bar
               => 23

     Here is an equivalent expression for the `defvar' special form:

          (defvar SYMBOL VALUE DOC-STRING)
          ==
          (progn
            (if (not (boundp 'SYMBOL))
                (setq SYMBOL VALUE))
            (put 'SYMBOL 'variable-documentation 'DOC-STRING)
            'SYMBOL)

     The `defvar' form returns SYMBOL, but it is normally used at top
     level in a file where its value does not matter.

 - Special Form: defconst symbol [value [doc-string]]
     This special form defines SYMBOL as a value and initializes it.
     It informs a person reading your code that SYMBOL has a global
     value, established here, that will not normally be changed or
     locally bound by the execution of the program.  The user, however,
     may be welcome to change it.  Note that SYMBOL is not evaluated;
     the symbol to be defined must appear explicitly in the `defconst'.

     `defconst' always evaluates VALUE and sets the global value of
     SYMBOL to the result, provided VALUE is given.  If SYMBOL has a
     buffer-local binding in the current buffer, `defconst' sets the
     default value, not the local value.

     *Please note:* Don't use `defconst' for user option variables in
     libraries that are not standardly preloaded.  The user should be
     able to specify a value for such a variable in the `.emacs' file,
     so that it will be in effect if and when the library is loaded
     later.

     Here, `pi' is a constant that presumably ought not to be changed
     by anyone (attempts by the Indiana State Legislature
     notwithstanding).  As the second form illustrates, however, this
     is only advisory.

          (defconst pi 3.1415 "Pi to five places.")
               => pi
          (setq pi 3)
               => pi
          pi
               => 3

 - Function: user-variable-p variable
     This function returns `t' if VARIABLE is a user option--a variable
     intended to be set by the user for customization--and `nil'
     otherwise.  (Variables other than user options exist for the
     internal purposes of Lisp programs, and users need not know about
     them.)

     User option variables are distinguished from other variables by the
     first character of the `variable-documentation' property.  If the
     property exists and is a string, and its first character is `*',
     then the variable is a user option.

   If a user option variable has a `variable-interactive' property, the
`set-variable' command uses that value to control reading the new value
for the variable.  The property's value is used as if it were the
argument to `interactive'.

   *Warning:* If the `defconst' and `defvar' special forms are used
while the variable has a local binding, they set the local binding's
value; the global binding is not changed.  This is not what we really
want.  To prevent it, use these special forms at top level in a file,
where normally no local binding is in effect, and make sure to load the
file before making a local binding for the variable.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Accessing Variables,  Next: Setting Variables,  Prev: Defining Variables,  Up: Variables

Accessing Variable Values
=========================

   The usual way to reference a variable is to write the symbol which
names it (*note Symbol Forms::).  This requires you to specify the
variable name when you write the program.  Usually that is exactly what
you want to do.  Occasionally you need to choose at run time which
variable to reference; then you can use `symbol-value'.

 - Function: symbol-value symbol
     This function returns the value of SYMBOL.  This is the value in
     the innermost local binding of the symbol, or its global value if
     it has no local bindings.

          (setq abracadabra 5)
               => 5
          (setq foo 9)
               => 9
          
          ;; Here the symbol `abracadabra'
          ;;   is the symbol whose value is examined.
          (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
            (symbol-value 'abracadabra))
               => foo
          
          ;; Here the value of `abracadabra',
          ;;   which is `foo',
          ;;   is the symbol whose value is examined.
          (let ((abracadabra 'foo))
            (symbol-value abracadabra))
               => 9
          
          (symbol-value 'abracadabra)
               => 5

     A `void-variable' error is signaled if SYMBOL has neither a local
     binding nor a global value.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Setting Variables,  Next: Variable Scoping,  Prev: Accessing Variables,  Up: Variables

How to Alter a Variable Value
=============================

   The usual way to change the value of a variable is with the special
form `setq'.  When you need to compute the choice of variable at run
time, use the function `set'.

 - Special Form: setq [symbol form]...
     This special form is the most common method of changing a
     variable's value.  Each SYMBOL is given a new value, which is the
     result of evaluating the corresponding FORM.  The most-local
     existing binding of the symbol is changed.

     `setq' does not evaluate SYMBOL; it sets the symbol that you
     write.  We say that this argument is "automatically quoted".  The
     `q' in `setq' stands for "quoted."

     The value of the `setq' form is the value of the last FORM.

          (setq x (1+ 2))
               => 3
          x                   ; `x' now has a global value.
               => 3
          (let ((x 5))
            (setq x 6)        ; The local binding of `x' is set.
            x)
               => 6
          x                   ; The global value is unchanged.
               => 3

     Note that the first FORM is evaluated, then the first SYMBOL is
     set, then the second FORM is evaluated, then the second SYMBOL is
     set, and so on:

          (setq x 10          ; Notice that `x' is set before
                y (1+ x))     ;   the value of `y' is computed.
               => 11

 - Function: set symbol value
     This function sets SYMBOL's value to VALUE, then returns VALUE.
     Since `set' is a function, the expression written for SYMBOL is
     evaluated to obtain the symbol to set.

     The most-local existing binding of the variable is the binding
     that is set; shadowed bindings are not affected.

          (set one 1)
          error--> Symbol's value as variable is void: one
          (set 'one 1)
               => 1
          (set 'two 'one)
               => one
          (set two 2)         ; `two' evaluates to symbol `one'.
               => 2
          one                 ; So it is `one' that was set.
               => 2
          (let ((one 1))      ; This binding of `one' is set,
            (set 'one 3)      ;   not the global value.
            one)
               => 3
          one
               => 2

     If SYMBOL is not actually a symbol, a `wrong-type-argument' error
     is signaled.

          (set '(x y) 'z)
          error--> Wrong type argument: symbolp, (x y)

     Logically speaking, `set' is a more fundamental primitive than
     `setq'.  Any use of `setq' can be trivially rewritten to use
     `set'; `setq' could even be defined as a macro, given the
     availability of `set'.  However, `set' itself is rarely used;
     beginners hardly need to know about it.  It is useful only for
     choosing at run time which variable to set.  For example, the
     command `set-variable', which reads a variable name from the user
     and then sets the variable, needs to use `set'.

          Common Lisp note: In Common Lisp, `set' always changes the
          symbol's special value, ignoring any lexical bindings.  In
          XEmacs Lisp, all variables and all bindings are (in effect)
          special, so `set' always affects the most local existing
          binding.

   One other function for setting a variable is designed to add an
element to a list if it is not already present in the list.

 - Function: add-to-list symbol element
     This function sets the variable SYMBOL by consing ELEMENT onto the
     old value, if ELEMENT is not already a member of that value.  It
     returns the resulting list, whether updated or not.  The value of
     SYMBOL had better be a list already before the call.

     The argument SYMBOL is not implicitly quoted; `add-to-list' is an
     ordinary function, like `set' and unlike `setq'.  Quote the
     argument yourself if that is what you want.

     Here's a scenario showing how to use `add-to-list':

          (setq foo '(a b))
               => (a b)
          
          (add-to-list 'foo 'c)     ;; Add `c'.
               => (c a b)
          
          (add-to-list 'foo 'b)     ;; No effect.
               => (c a b)
          
          foo                       ;; `foo' was changed.
               => (c a b)

   An equivalent expression for `(add-to-list 'VAR VALUE)' is this:

     (or (member VALUE VAR)
         (setq VAR (cons VALUE VAR)))

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Variable Scoping,  Next: Buffer-Local Variables,  Prev: Setting Variables,  Up: Variables

Scoping Rules for Variable Bindings
===================================

   A given symbol `foo' may have several local variable bindings,
established at different places in the Lisp program, as well as a global
binding.  The most recently established binding takes precedence over
the others.

   Local bindings in XEmacs Lisp have "indefinite scope" and "dynamic
extent".  "Scope" refers to _where_ textually in the source code the
binding can be accessed.  Indefinite scope means that any part of the
program can potentially access the variable binding.  "Extent" refers
to _when_, as the program is executing, the binding exists.  Dynamic
extent means that the binding lasts as long as the activation of the
construct that established it.

   The combination of dynamic extent and indefinite scope is called
"dynamic scoping".  By contrast, most programming languages use
"lexical scoping", in which references to a local variable must be
located textually within the function or block that binds the variable.

     Common Lisp note: Variables declared "special" in Common Lisp are
     dynamically scoped, like variables in XEmacs Lisp.

* Menu:

* Scope::          Scope means where in the program a value is visible.
                     Comparison with other languages.
* Extent::         Extent means how long in time a value exists.
* Impl of Scope::  Two ways to implement dynamic scoping.
* Using Scoping::  How to use dynamic scoping carefully and avoid problems.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Scope,  Next: Extent,  Up: Variable Scoping

Scope
-----

   XEmacs Lisp uses "indefinite scope" for local variable bindings.
This means that any function anywhere in the program text might access a
given binding of a variable.  Consider the following function
definitions:

     (defun binder (x)   ; `x' is bound in `binder'.
        (foo 5))         ; `foo' is some other function.
     
     (defun user ()      ; `x' is used in `user'.
       (list x))

   In a lexically scoped language, the binding of `x' in `binder' would
never be accessible in `user', because `user' is not textually
contained within the function `binder'.  However, in dynamically scoped
XEmacs Lisp, `user' may or may not refer to the binding of `x'
established in `binder', depending on circumstances:

   * If we call `user' directly without calling `binder' at all, then
     whatever binding of `x' is found, it cannot come from `binder'.

   * If we define `foo' as follows and call `binder', then the binding
     made in `binder' will be seen in `user':

          (defun foo (lose)
            (user))

   * If we define `foo' as follows and call `binder', then the binding
     made in `binder' _will not_ be seen in `user':

          (defun foo (x)
            (user))

     Here, when `foo' is called by `binder', it binds `x'.  (The
     binding in `foo' is said to "shadow" the one made in `binder'.)
     Therefore, `user' will access the `x' bound by `foo' instead of
     the one bound by `binder'.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Extent,  Next: Impl of Scope,  Prev: Scope,  Up: Variable Scoping

Extent
------

   "Extent" refers to the time during program execution that a variable
name is valid.  In XEmacs Lisp, a variable is valid only while the form
that bound it is executing.  This is called "dynamic extent".  "Local"
or "automatic" variables in most languages, including C and Pascal,
have dynamic extent.

   One alternative to dynamic extent is "indefinite extent".  This
means that a variable binding can live on past the exit from the form
that made the binding.  Common Lisp and Scheme, for example, support
this, but XEmacs Lisp does not.

   To illustrate this, the function below, `make-add', returns a
function that purports to add N to its own argument M.  This would work
in Common Lisp, but it does not work as intended in XEmacs Lisp,
because after the call to `make-add' exits, the variable `n' is no
longer bound to the actual argument 2.

     (defun make-add (n)
         (function (lambda (m) (+ n m))))  ; Return a function.
          => make-add
     (fset 'add2 (make-add 2))  ; Define function `add2'
                                ;   with `(make-add 2)'.
          => (lambda (m) (+ n m))
     (add2 4)                   ; Try to add 2 to 4.
     error--> Symbol's value as variable is void: n

   Some Lisp dialects have "closures", objects that are like functions
but record additional variable bindings.  XEmacs Lisp does not have
closures.

\1f
File: lispref.info,  Node: Impl of Scope,  Next: Using Scoping,  Prev: Extent,  Up: Variable Scoping

Implementation of Dynamic Scoping
---------------------------------

   A simple sample implementation (which is not how XEmacs Lisp actually
works) may help you understand dynamic binding.  This technique is
called "deep binding" and was used in early Lisp systems.

   Suppose there is a stack of bindings: variable-value pairs.  At entry
to a function or to a `let' form, we can push bindings on the stack for
the arguments or local variables created there.  We can pop those
bindings from the stack at exit from the binding construct.

   We can find the value of a variable by searching the stack from top
to bottom for a binding for that variable; the value from that binding
is the value of the variable.  To set the variable, we search for the
current binding, then store the new value into that binding.

   As you can see, a function's bindings remain in effect as long as it
continues execution, even during its calls to other functions.  That is
why we say the extent of the binding is dynamic.  And any other function
can refer to the bindings, if it uses the same variables while the
bindings are in effect.  That is why we say the scope is indefinite.

   The actual implementation of variable scoping in XEmacs Lisp uses a
technique called "shallow binding".  Each variable has a standard place
in which its current value is always found--the value cell of the
symbol.

   In shallow binding, setting the variable works by storing a value in
the value cell.  Creating a new binding works by pushing the old value
(belonging to a previous binding) on a stack, and storing the local
value in the value cell.  Eliminating a binding works by popping the
old value off the stack, into the value cell.

   We use shallow binding because it has the same results as deep
binding, but runs faster, since there is never a need to search for a
binding.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Using Scoping,  Prev: Impl of Scope,  Up: Variable Scoping

Proper Use of Dynamic Scoping
-----------------------------

   Binding a variable in one function and using it in another is a
powerful technique, but if used without restraint, it can make programs
hard to understand.  There are two clean ways to use this technique:

   * Use or bind the variable only in a few related functions, written
     close together in one file.  Such a variable is used for
     communication within one program.

     You should write comments to inform other programmers that they
     can see all uses of the variable before them, and to advise them
     not to add uses elsewhere.

   * Give the variable a well-defined, documented meaning, and make all
     appropriate functions refer to it (but not bind it or set it)
     wherever that meaning is relevant.  For example, the variable
     `case-fold-search' is defined as "non-`nil' means ignore case when
     searching"; various search and replace functions refer to it
     directly or through their subroutines, but do not bind or set it.

     Then you can bind the variable in other programs, knowing reliably
     what the effect will be.

   In either case, you should define the variable with `defvar'.  This
helps other people understand your program by telling them to look for
inter-function usage.  It also avoids a warning from the byte compiler.
Choose the variable's name to avoid name conflicts--don't use short
names like `x'.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Buffer-Local Variables,  Next: Variable Aliases,  Prev: Variable Scoping,  Up: Variables

Buffer-Local Variables
======================

   Global and local variable bindings are found in most programming
languages in one form or another.  XEmacs also supports another, unusual
kind of variable binding: "buffer-local" bindings, which apply only to
one buffer.  XEmacs Lisp is meant for programming editing commands, and
having different values for a variable in different buffers is an
important customization method.

* Menu:

* Intro to Buffer-Local::      Introduction and concepts.
* Creating Buffer-Local::      Creating and destroying buffer-local bindings.
* Default Value::              The default value is seen in buffers
                                 that don't have their own local values.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Intro to Buffer-Local,  Next: Creating Buffer-Local,  Up: Buffer-Local Variables

Introduction to Buffer-Local Variables
--------------------------------------

   A buffer-local variable has a buffer-local binding associated with a
particular buffer.  The binding is in effect when that buffer is
current; otherwise, it is not in effect.  If you set the variable while
a buffer-local binding is in effect, the new value goes in that binding,
so the global binding is unchanged; this means that the change is
visible in that buffer alone.

   A variable may have buffer-local bindings in some buffers but not in
others.  The global binding is shared by all the buffers that don't have
their own bindings.  Thus, if you set the variable in a buffer that does
not have a buffer-local binding for it, the new value is visible in all
buffers except those with buffer-local bindings.  (Here we are assuming
that there are no `let'-style local bindings to complicate the issue.)

   The most common use of buffer-local bindings is for major modes to
change variables that control the behavior of commands.  For example, C
mode and Lisp mode both set the variable `paragraph-start' to specify
that only blank lines separate paragraphs.  They do this by making the
variable buffer-local in the buffer that is being put into C mode or
Lisp mode, and then setting it to the new value for that mode.

   The usual way to make a buffer-local binding is with
`make-local-variable', which is what major mode commands use.  This
affects just the current buffer; all other buffers (including those yet
to be created) continue to share the global value.

   A more powerful operation is to mark the variable as "automatically
buffer-local" by calling `make-variable-buffer-local'.  You can think
of this as making the variable local in all buffers, even those yet to
be created.  More precisely, the effect is that setting the variable
automatically makes the variable local to the current buffer if it is
not already so.  All buffers start out by sharing the global value of
the variable as usual, but any `setq' creates a buffer-local binding
for the current buffer.  The new value is stored in the buffer-local
binding, leaving the (default) global binding untouched.  The global
value can no longer be changed with `setq'; you need to use
`setq-default' to do that.

   Local variables in a file you edit are also represented by
buffer-local bindings for the buffer that holds the file within XEmacs.
*Note Auto Major Mode::.

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File: lispref.info,  Node: Creating Buffer-Local,  Next: Default Value,  Prev: Intro to Buffer-Local,  Up: Buffer-Local Variables

Creating and Deleting Buffer-Local Bindings
-------------------------------------------

 - Command: make-local-variable variable
     This function creates a buffer-local binding in the current buffer
     for VARIABLE (a symbol).  Other buffers are not affected.  The
     value returned is VARIABLE.

     The buffer-local value of VARIABLE starts out as the same value
     VARIABLE previously had.  If VARIABLE was void, it remains void.

          ;; In buffer `b1':
          (setq foo 5)                ; Affects all buffers.
               => 5
          (make-local-variable 'foo)  ; Now it is local in `b1'.
               => foo
          foo                         ; That did not change
               => 5                   ;   the value.
          (setq foo 6)                ; Change the value
               => 6                   ;   in `b1'.
          foo
               => 6
          
          ;; In buffer `b2', the value hasn't changed.
          (save-excursion
            (set-buffer "b2")
            foo)
               => 5

     Making a variable buffer-local within a `let'-binding for that
     variable does not work.  This is because `let' does not distinguish
     between different kinds of bindings; it knows only which variable
     the binding was made for.

     *Please note:* do not use `make-local-variable' for a hook
     variable.  Instead, use `make-local-hook'.  *Note Hooks::.

 - Command: make-variable-buffer-local variable
     This function marks VARIABLE (a symbol) automatically
     buffer-local, so that any subsequent attempt to set it will make it
     local to the current buffer at the time.

     The value returned is VARIABLE.

 - Function: local-variable-p variable &optional buffer
     This returns `t' if VARIABLE is buffer-local in buffer BUFFER
     (which defaults to the current buffer); otherwise, `nil'.

 - Function: buffer-local-variables &optional buffer
     This function returns a list describing the buffer-local variables
     in buffer BUFFER.  It returns an association list (*note
     Association Lists::) in which each association contains one
     buffer-local variable and its value.  When a buffer-local variable
     is void in BUFFER, then it appears directly in the resulting list.
     If BUFFER is omitted, the current buffer is used.

          (make-local-variable 'foobar)
          (makunbound 'foobar)
          (make-local-variable 'bind-me)
          (setq bind-me 69)
          (setq lcl (buffer-local-variables))
              ;; First, built-in variables local in all buffers:
          => ((mark-active . nil)
              (buffer-undo-list nil)
              (mode-name . "Fundamental")
              ...
              ;; Next, non-built-in local variables.
              ;; This one is local and void:
              foobar
              ;; This one is local and nonvoid:
              (bind-me . 69))

     Note that storing new values into the CDRs of cons cells in this
     list does _not_ change the local values of the variables.

 - Command: kill-local-variable variable
     This function deletes the buffer-local binding (if any) for
     VARIABLE (a symbol) in the current buffer.  As a result, the
     global (default) binding of VARIABLE becomes visible in this
     buffer.  Usually this results in a change in the value of
     VARIABLE, since the global value is usually different from the
     buffer-local value just eliminated.

     If you kill the local binding of a variable that automatically
     becomes local when set, this makes the global value visible in the
     current buffer.  However, if you set the variable again, that will
     once again create a local binding for it.

     `kill-local-variable' returns VARIABLE.

     This function is a command because it is sometimes useful to kill
     one buffer-local variable interactively, just as it is useful to
     create buffer-local variables interactively.

 - Function: kill-all-local-variables
     This function eliminates all the buffer-local variable bindings of
     the current buffer except for variables marked as "permanent".  As
     a result, the buffer will see the default values of most variables.

     This function also resets certain other information pertaining to
     the buffer: it sets the local keymap to `nil', the syntax table to
     the value of `standard-syntax-table', and the abbrev table to the
     value of `fundamental-mode-abbrev-table'.

     Every major mode command begins by calling this function, which
     has the effect of switching to Fundamental mode and erasing most
     of the effects of the previous major mode.  To ensure that this
     does its job, the variables that major modes set should not be
     marked permanent.

     `kill-all-local-variables' returns `nil'.

   A local variable is "permanent" if the variable name (a symbol) has a
`permanent-local' property that is non-`nil'.  Permanent locals are
appropriate for data pertaining to where the file came from or how to
save it, rather than with how to edit the contents.